Semantic change


Semantic change is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the original usage. In diachronic linguistics, semantic change is a change in one of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and connotations, which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings. The study of semantic change can be seen as part of etymology, onomasiology, semasiology, and semantics.

Examples

A number of classification schemes have been suggested for semantic change.

Typology by Bloomfield (1933)

The most widely accepted scheme in the English-speaking academic world is from :
However, the categorization of has gained increasing acceptance:
Blank considers it problematic, though, to include amelioration and pejoration of meaning as well as strengthening and weakening of meaning. According to Blank, these are not objectively classifiable phenomena; moreover, Blank has shown that all of the examples listed under these headings can be grouped into the other phenomena.

Forces triggering change

Blank has tried to create a complete list of motivations for semantic change. They can be summarized as:
This list has been revised and slightly enlarged by :
A specific case of semantic change is reappropriation, a cultural process by which a group reclaims words or artifacts that were previously used in a way disparaging of that group, for example like with the word queer. Other related processes include pejoration and amelioration.

Practical studies

Apart from many individual studies, etymological dictionaries are prominent reference books for finding out about semantic changes.

Theoretical studies

Recent overviews have been presented by Blank and. Semantic change had attracted academic discussions already in ancient times. The first major works of modern times were,,,,, and Stephen Ullmann. Studies beyond the analysis of single words have been started with the word-field analyses of, who claimed that every semantic change of a word would also affect all other words in a lexical field. His approach was later refined by. introduced Generative semantics. More recent works including pragmatic and cognitive theories are those in, Dirk Geeraerts, and.
As stated above, the most currently used typologies are those by and shown above. Other typologies are listed below.

Typology by Reisig (1839)

ideas for a classification were published posthumously. He resorts to classical rhetorics and distinguishes between
The last two are defined as change between whole and part, which would today be rendered as synecdoche.

Typology by Bréal (1899)

This classification does not neatly distinguish between processes and forces/causes of semantic change.

Typology by Ullmann (1957, 1962)

Ullmann distinguishes between nature and consequences of semantic change: