Kurma


Kurma, also known as 'KurmaRaja' is an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. Originating in Vedic literature such as the YajurVeda as being synonymous with the Saptarishi called Kasyapa, Kurma is most commonly associated in post-Vedic literature such as the Puranas with the legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, referred to as the Samudra manthan. Also synonymous with Akupara, the world-turtle supporting the Earth, Kurma is listed as the second incarnation of the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu.

Nomenclature and Etymology

The Sanskrit word 'Kurma' means 'tortoise' and 'turtle'. 'Kurmaraja' means 'king of tortoises or turtles'. The tortoise avatar of Vishnu is also referred to in post-Vedic literature such as the Bhagavata Purana as 'Kacchapam', 'Kamaṭha', 'Akupara', and 'Ambucara-ātmanā', all of which mean 'tortoise' or 'form of a tortoise'.

The Nirukta

Written by the grammarian Yaska, the Nirukta is one of the six Vedangas or 'limbs of the Vedas', concerned with correct etymology and interpretation of the Vedas. The entry for the Tortoise states :

Kasyapa

As illustrated below, Vedic literature such as the SamaVeda and YajurVeda explicitly state Akupara/Kurma and the sage Kasyapa are synonymous. Kasyapa - also meaning 'Tortoise' - is considered the progenitor of all living beings with his thirteen wives, including vegetation, as related by H.R. Zimmer:
The legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk developed in post-Vedic literature is itself inextricably linked with Kurma and involves other sons of Kasyapa: the Devas/Âdityas and the Asuras/Danavas/Daityas use one of the Naga as a churning rope to obtain Amrita. Garuda, the king of birds and mount of Vishnu, is another son of Kasyapa often mentioned in this legend. In another, Garuda seeks the Amrita produced to free his mother and himself from enslavement by Kadru.

The Body (Air and Arteries)

M. Vettam notes that there are ten Vayus in the body, one of which is called 'Kurma' in regards to opening and closing the eyes.
The 'kurma-nadi', meaning 'tortoise-nerve' or 'canal of the tortoise', is in relation to steadying the mind in Yogic practice. 'Nadi' itself means 'vein', 'artery', 'river', or 'any tubular organ of the body'. Although the Kūrmanāḍī is generally stated to be located in the upper chest below the throat, S. Lele believes this refers to the Muladhara Chakra, located near the tailbone, based on the root-word 'nal', meaning 'to bind'.
These are all mentioned in the Upanishads and Puranas.

Yogic Practice / Ritual Worship

Kurmasana is a Yoga posture. 'Panikacchapika', meaning 'hand tortoise', is a special positioning of the fingers during worship rituals to symbolise Kurma. The Kurmacakra is a yantra, a mystical diagram for worship, in the shape of a tortoise. These are all mentioned in the Upanishads and Puranas.

Symbolism

Firmness / Steadiness: W. Caland notes that in relation to 'Akupara Kasyapa' in the Pancavimsa Brahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmana, the tortoise is equal to 'a firm standing... and Kasyapa is able to convey across the sea '. P.N. Sinha seems to support this view, adding 'Kurma was a great Avatara as He prepared the way for the spiritual regeneration of the universe, by the Churning of the ocean of Milk'.
Deity Yajna-Purusha: N. Aiyangar states that as the tortoise was 'used as the very basis of the fire altar, the hidden invisible tortoise, taken together with the altar and the sacred fire, seems to have been regarded as symbolizing the Deity Yajna-Purusha who is an invisible spiritual god extending from the fire altar up to heaven and everywhere... this seems to be the reason why the tortoise is identified with the sun'.
Meditation / Churning the Mind: Aiyangar also surmises that the legend of the Samudra manthan symbolises churning the mind through meditation to achieve liberation. Based on the mention of Vātaraśanāḥ Munis in the Taittirtya Aranyaka - also referred to as urdhvamanthin, meaning 'those who churn upwards' - and the explanation provided in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Aiyangar believes this would 'appear to be the hidden pivot on which the gist of the riddle of the Puranic legend about the churning for nectar turns'. R. Jarow seems to agree, stating the churning of the Ocean of Milk represents the 'churning of the dualistic mind'.Ascetic Penance: H.H. Wilson notes that 'the account in the Hari Vamsa... is explained, by the commentator, as an allegory, in which the churning of the ocean typifies ascetic penance, and the ambrosia is final liberation', but personally dismisses this interpretation as 'mere mystification'.
Astronomy: B.G. Sidharth states that the legend of the Samudra manthan symbolises astronomic phenomena, for example that 'Mandara represents the polar regions of Earth churning rope, Vasuki, symbolizes the slow annual motion of Earth... Vishnu, or the Sun himself rests upon a coiled snake... which represents the rotation of the Sun on its own axis'. In regards to the tortoise supporting the Earth, Sidharth adds that the 'twelve pillars... are evidently the twelve months of the year, and... The four elephants on which Earth rests are the Dikarin, the sentinels of the four directions.. symbolizes the fact that Earth is supported in space in its annual orbit around the Sun'.
Extension and Withdrawal: As illustrated throughout this article, the tortoise extending and retracting its limbs is often mentioned allegorically in the Itihāsa and Puranas in regards to various subjects, particularly self-control and detachment.

The Vedas

, A.B. Keith, J. Roy, J. Dowson, and W.J. Wilkins all state that the origin of Kurma is in the Vedas, specifically the Shatapatha Brahmana, where the name is also synonymous with Kasyapa, one of the Saptarishi. Macdonell adds that although the Shatapatha Brahmana also states all creatures are 'descended from Kasyapa', and lists this as the name of a Brahmin family in the RigVeda, he acknowledges academics such as E.W. Hopkins 'doubt whether the names of animals ever point to totemism'.

Rig Veda

Verse 2 is significant as Aiyangar states that the vātaraśanāḥ Munis were known as sramanas and as urdhvamanthins, meaning 'those who churn upwards'. To explain what to 'churn upwards' means, Aiyangar quotes from the Shvetashvatara Upanishad :
There is disagreement amongst academics as to whether the term 'vātaraśanāḥ' refers to being naked or severe austerity. Aiyangar argues that austerity is the correct interpretation as the RigVeda clearly states the vātaraśanāḥ Munis are wearing garments, and because the 'unshaven long-haired Muni cannot have been an ascetic of the order of sannyasin... who shaved his head'. P. Olivelle agrees, stating the term changed from meaning 'ascetic behaviour' to 'a class of risis' by the time of the Taittirtya Aranyaka, in which the vātaraśanāḥa Munis appear with Kurma.
Verse 7 is significant as in addition to mentioning the wind-god Vayu 'churning' the vātaraśanāḥ Munis 'following the wind's swift course', although R.T.H. Griffith translated 'viṣá' as Rudra drinking water, Aiyangar states it also means 'poison' and quotes Dr. Muir as stating that 'Rudra drinking water may possibly have given rise to the legend of his drinking poison ' in the Samudra manthan.

Sama Veda

The sage Kasyapa - stated in the Vedas, Itihāsa, and Puranas to be the progenitor of all living beings - is also stated to be synonymous with Akupara, the name of the 'world-turtle' in the Mahabharata. Caland explains in his footnote to verse 30 the significance of this name by quoting from the Jaiminiya Brahmana:
The Jaiminiya Brahmana explicitly links Akupara, Kasyapa, and the tortoise in regards to providing a 'firm standing' to cross over the sea of material existence. As illustrated below, in the YajurVeda, Kasyapa is also stated to be synonymous with Prajapati and with Kurma. In the Puranas, Kasyapa is frequently referred to as 'Prajapati' as well.

Yajur Veda

Shukla (White) YajurVeda

Macdonell states that in the above-quoted verse, Kurma 'is raised to the semi-divine position as 'lord of waters'. Verse 24.34 states that 'the tortoise belongs to Heaven and Earth' and Verse 24.37 states that the tortoise - along with the doe-antelope and iguana - 'belong to the Apsarases'. The translator, R.T.H. Griffith, makes several notes in the Shukla YajurVeda regarding the use and symbolism of tortoises. This includes remarking in book 13, that the tortoise was buried in 'ceremonies connected with the construction of the Ahavaniya Fire-Altar'. Other notes made by Griffith in regards to sacrificial ritual practice with the corresponding texts include:
  • Verse 13.30 : 'He lays down the tortoise on a bed of Avaka plants on the right side of the brick Invincible... The tortoise may have been chosen here with reference to the belief that the world rests upon a tortoise as an incarnation of Vishnu.'
  • Verse 13.31 : 'He keeps his hand on the tortoise and shakes it as he recites the text'.
  • Verse 13.31 : 'He puts the tortoise on the altar site with the text.'
The tortoise is also mentioned in the Shatapatha Brahmana:'Ashâdhâ' means 'of a brick used for the sacrificial altar'. The Shatapatha Brahmana explicitly states the Tortoise forms part of the sacrificial altar, that it represents the Earth and the Sun, and that it 'is the breath, for the breath makes all these creatures'. The remainder of this Brahmana details the process of carrying out the sacrifice. Notably, several references are made to Vishnu as the performer and enjoyer of the sacrifice. Thus, the tortoise - Kurma - is explicitly linked with Vishnu.
Kurma is also stated to be the origin of all creatures and synonymous with the sage, Kasyapa, repeatedly stated throughout Puranic literature to be a 'Prajapati', i.e. the origin of all living creatures. Dowson states 'authorities agree in assigning him a large part in the work of creation', as one of the seven great rishis and the guru of both the Parasurama and Rama avatars of Vishnu.

Krishna (Black) YajurVeda

Relating to the tortoise being the 'Bull of Bricks' in the Shukla YajurVeda, Aiyangar states that the Taittiriya Samhita 'speaks of the ritual of burying a living tortoise underneath the altar, and says that the tortoise thus buried will lead the sacrificer to Suvarga, Heaven': performed by a Brahmin using a modern-brick fire-altar.
The building of sacrificial altars are directly connected with Prajapati. Macdonell also notes another instance in the Taittiriya Samhita where Prajapati assigns sacrifices for the gods and places the oblation within himself, before Risis arrive at the sacrifice and 'the sacrificial cake is said to become a tortoise'. The Taittiriya Samhita also describes the use of bricks - real bricks made of clay/earth and symbolic 'bricks' of water and Durva grass - for the construction of real and symbolic altars for rituals and oblations.
F. Staal and D.M. Knipe both state that the creation, numbers, and configuration or layering of bricks - real and symbolic - had numerous rules, with Staal adding that 'Vedic geometry developed from the construction of these and other complex altar shapes'. The use of bricks to build fire-altars for oblations to achieve liberation is also mentioned by Yama to Nachiketa in the Katha Upanishad. Aiyangar also quotes from the Taittiriya Aranyaka, where 'the Tortoise Kurma is, in this story also, the maker of the universe': .
In the Taittirtya Aranyaka, the Vātaraśanāḥ Rishis are generated by Prajapati who then encounters a tortoise that existed even before he, the creator of the universe, came into being. Aiyangar states that 'the words Vātaraśanāḥ and urdhvamanthin ... appear to be the hidden pivot on which the gist of the riddle of the Puranic legend about the churning for nectar turns'.

Atharva Veda

Macdonell states that Kurma 'as Kasyapa, often appears beside or identical with Prajapati in the AV ', receiving the epithet svayambhu, meaning 'self-existent'. Kāla means 'time', and in direct relation to creation, the Bhagavata Purana states that Vishnu entered into the inert or static purusha to animate it into creation 'with the goddess Kālī , His external energy, who alone amalgamates all the different elements'. Relating to the Holy Fire, in the Katha Upanishad, Yama, describing the rite of fire and use of bricks to build an altar, states to Nachiketa that fire is the first of the worlds, the foundation of the universe, and the cause of 'acquiring infinite worlds'.

Itihāsa (Epics)

Mahabharata

Although academics such as N. Sutton state 'there is no indication' that Kurma is an avatar of Vishnu in the Mahabharata, Narayana does list the tortoise as one of His incarnations.
Other academics such as M. Vettam have also ascribed the name 'Kurma' to one of the 1,000 serpent-sons of Kadru, although this is actually 'Kumara', which translates to 'Nāga', 'youth', and 'son'. Although Kurma is only briefly mentioned as the pivot for the mountain-churning-rod, there are numerous references throughout to tortoises and churning:
  • Tortoises extending and retracting their limbs are mentioned allegorically in regards to drawing in the senses from external objects, hiding weaknesses,' withdrawing desires, cosmological creation and destruction, reincarnation, and understanding
  • Linking to the SamaVeda, The 'ocean of life' is stated to have sorrow for water, anxiety and grief for lakes, disease and death for alligators, heart-striking fears as huge snakes, and tamasic actions as tortoises
  • The 'Vina of melodious notes' of Narada is stated to be made out of a tortoise-shell
  • Churning is mentioned throughout - additionally to dairy products such as milk - in regards to producing beauty, notably the sticks and churning staff used by ascetic Brahmins, desires generated in the mind, knowledge gained from reading Vedic scriptures, karma, authorship of the Mahabharata, and cosmological creation and destruction
Kasyapa - synonymous with Kurma - is also mentioned throughout as Prajapati. This includes in relation to the Samudra manthan, most notably in the legend of Garuda, the son of Kasyapa and Vinata, created through sacrificial rituals with the help of Indra and Valikhilya Rishis. While seeking the Amrita produced by the churning of the ocean to free himself and his mother from slavery by Kadru and her 1,000 serpent-sons, Garuda is told by Kasyapa to eat two quarrelling Rishi brothers incarnated as a quarrelling Elephant and Tortoise to gain enough energy. Later, Garuda battles Indra and the celestials and extinguishes a raging fire to obtain the Amrita. In agreement with Indra, Garuda tricks the serpents to achieve freedom without giving them the Amrita; due to licking the drops left behind, the serpents develop forked tongues.' Other details include:
  • Kasyapa, the son of Marichi, is father of the gods and asuras, the 'Father of the worlds'.
  • There are two accounts of Kasyapa lifting the Earth out of the waters through sacrifice similar to the legend of Varaha. In the first, the Earth is raised as an altar, while in the second the Earth is held on the lap of Kasyapa and is given the name 'Urvi'.
  • Although given knowledge by Brahma to neutralise poisons, Kasyapa was prevented from saving King Parakshit by a snake called Takshaka disguised as a Brahmin; Takshaka later bit and killed the king. The story of Parakshit features in the Bhagavata Purana, where Takshaka is a snake-bird.
  • Vamana, the dwarf avatar of Vishnu, is another of Kasyapa's progeny; 'The other wives of Kasyapa gave birth to Gandharvas, horses, birds, kine, Kimpurushas, fishes, and trees and plants. Aditi gave birth to the Adityas'.
  • Also known as Tarkshya, Kasyapa cast off his body to pervade the Earth in spirit form and made her rich in abundance.
  • Kasyapa encounters an emancipated sage who 'was as unattached to all things as the wind' and worships him.

    Bhagavad Gita

The same allegory is mentioned frequently throughout the Mahabharata, of which the Bhagavad Gita is a part.

Harivamsa

P. Terry states that 'Probably the oldest sources for the avataras are Harivamsa and Mahabharata', but incorrectly believes Kurma is not listed in the Harivamsa as an avatar of Vishnu. Other details include:
  • The allegory of the tortoise drawing in its limbs is mentioned in respect to withdrawing from sense-pleasures
  • Kasyapa is mentioned primarily in regards to creating 'the great Parijata tree' for Aditi to accomplish her vow of Punyaka, the worship of Krishna to obtain a son, resulting in the birth of Vamana, the dwarf avatar.

    Ramayana

Swami Achuthananda states that although varied like other legends, 'Vishnu's role in the Kurma avatar was limited compared to that in other avatars'. The role of Kurma in the Samudra manthan is essentially the same in all cited versions of the Ramayana, whereby after the mountain-churning-rod begins to sink into the ocean, Vishnu assumes the form of the gigantic tortoise, Kurma, as a pivot to hold it, while in another simultaneous incarnation also helps to turn the rod. Notably, the Adhyatma Ramayana states Kurma to be an incarnation of Rama. Other details include:
  • Kasyapa is mentioned as being awarded the Earth by Parasurama
  • Rama visits the spot where Garuda, a son of Kasyapa and the mount of Vishnu, attempted to eat the warring Elephant and Tortoise, but took compassion on the 'Vaikhanasas, Mashas, Valakhilyas, Marichaipas, Ajas, and Dhumras' assembled there and flew away.

    Maha-Puranas

J.W. Wilkins states that the 'probable' origin of Kurma is as an incarnation of Prajapati in the Shatapatha Brahmana, but as 'the worship of Brahma became less popular, whilst that of Vishnu increased in its attraction, the names, attributes, and works of one deity seem to have been transferred to the other'.
In post-Vedic literature, including the Puranas, Kurma is inextricably linked with the legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, known as the Samudra manthan. Kurma is also directly linked with Akupara, the so-called 'world-turtle' that supports the Earth, usually with Sesa.

Agni Purana

In the Agni Purana, the churning of the ocean of Milk takes place after the curse of the sage Durvasas, due to which 'the celestials were deprived of all their prosperity' and being defeated by the Asuras, seek refuge with Hari. In this account of the Samudra manthan, poison is generated by the churning which is drunk by Shiva. Vishnu later assumes the form of a 'beautiful damsel' to trick the Asuras into giving away the Ambrosia. Requested by Shiva, Vishnu again assumes the Mohini form, causing Shiva to behave 'like a mad man' with lust before 'knowing her as illusory'. Focusing on temple construction, prayer, and worship, other details include:
  • Kurma is stated to be the second avatar of Vishnu.
  • The Salagrama stone for Kurma is described as black in colour with circular lines and an elevated hinder part
  • Vishnu is stated to reside in Bharata in the form of Kurma and is presiding deity over Kasyapa, sage of the Vyahrtis

    Bhagavata Purana

In the Bhagavata Purana, Kurma is described as an incarnation of Ajita, a partial expansion of Krishna born to the Saptarishi Vairaja and his wife Devasambhuti during the reign of the sixth Manu, Chakshusha.
The churning of the ocean of Milk takes place after the curse of the sage Durvasa, due to which 'the three worlds were 'poverty stricken, and therefore ritualistic ceremonies could not be performed'. The Devas seek refuge with Krishna at His abode 'on an island called Svetadvipa, which is situated in the ocean of milk'. Krishna instructs the Devas to form a pact with the Asuras to churn the ocean of milk and warns them about the emergence of the poison, Kalakuta. Later, 'observing that most of the demons and demigods had been crushed by the falling of the mountain' to be used as a churning rod, Krishna brings them back to life, lifts the Mandara mountain, and carries it on the back of Garuda to the Ocean of Milk. The Ocean is churned with Vasuki as a rope, the sleepy Kurma as the base who 'extended for eight hundred thousand miles like a large island' and felt a 'pleasing sensation' at being scratched, and Ajita Himself personally helping. Poison is generated, to which Shiva 'compassionately took the whole quantity of poison in his palm and drank it' as an example of voluntary suffering for others; the remaining poison was drunk by animals with poisonous bites such as scorpions and Cobras.
Churned with a renewed vigor by 'the sons of Kasyapa', the Ocean of Milk produces auspicious beings, including Lakshmi and Dhanvantari - 'a plenary portion of a plenary portion of Lord Visnu' - with the nectar of immortality. After the demons steal the nectar, Vishnu incarnates as Mohini-Murti, who despite warning the lustful and infatuated demons not to trust Her, is still given the Amrita which She distributes to the Devas. Vishnu leaves and a battle ensues between the Devas and Asuras. On the cusp of defeat, the Devas appeal to Vishnu for help once again, who reappears and helps to defeat the Asuras. Other details include:
  • Kurma is listed as the 10th and 11th incarnations of Krishna
  • Vishnu is stated to live in the form of a tortoise in a land called Hiraṇmaya-varṣa
  • Kurma is described as 'the reservoir of all transcendental qualities, and being entirely untinged by matter... perfectly situated in pure goodness'
  • Relating to the tortoise symbollsing the sun it is stated that the 'sun-god marks the path of liberation'
  • Vishnu invigorates the Devas with Sattva, the Asuras with Rajas, and Vasuki with Tamas, according to their natures

    Brahma Purana

As quoted above, the legend of Kurma is only briefly mentioned in the Brahma Purana, although it is stated that the 'Devas were not able to conquer Danavas in battle' before Shiva in this account of the Samudra manthan - not Narayana/Vishnu - is approached for help. Kurma is however mentioned in prayers and obeisances throughout, such as by Kandu and Indra. Other details include:
  • Vishnu resides in Bharata in form of the tortoise
  • The first step of the Vamana avatar to take back the three worlds from Bali was 'After standing firmly on the back of the tortoise'

    Brahmanda Purana

In the Brahmanda Purana, the churning of the ocean of Milk takes place after Brahma curses Indra for killing the powerful Asura ascetic Visvarupa, the grandson of Kasyapa. The curse causes ruin to the Earth and to the Brahmins, while the weakened Devas are attacked by the Asuras and forced forced to flee to Narayana for refuge. In this account of the Samudra manthan, no poison is produced or consumed by Shiva, and it is stated that the Daityas became known as 'Asuras' due to rejecting Varuni, the goddess of wine, after her emergence from the ocean. Notably, the manifestation of the Mohini avatar of Vishnu during the battle between the Devas and Asuras over the nectar is stated to be identical in form to the goddess Mahesvari.

Brahmavaivarta Purana

In the Brahmavaivarta Purana, two accounts of Kurma relating to the Samudra manthan are given. In the first, the churning of the ocean of Milk takes place after Indra is cursed by the sage Durvasa for arrogance, resulting in the gods and the people of Earth being 'deprived of their glory'. The account of the churning itself consists of only a few verses, without mention of the emergence of poison or the appearance of the Mohini avatar.
In the second account, Sanatkumara encounters Kurma at the ocean of milk after the churning took place, where the 'vast tortoise of the size of a hundred Yojanas was lying there. He looked terrified, shaking, grief-stricken and dry' due to being driven out from the water by a fish called Raghava, an epithet usually associated with the Rama avatar.
Kurma is also mentioned repeatedly as the support of the Earth along with the Naga Sesa or Ananta. Generally, it is stated that the Earth rests on the head or hood of a Naga, the Naga rests on the head of Kurma, and Kurma is supported by the Wind at the command of or supported itself by Krishna. There are variations, such as where the air supports water which supports Kurma. In these accounts, Krishna is stated to take the form of a tortoise from his amsha and in the form of Sesa carries the entire universe on His head ; Sesa states he is also from the amsha of Krishna, rests on the head of Kurma 'like a small mosquito on the elephant head', and that there are 'innumerable' Brahmas, Vishnus, Shivas, Sesas, and Earth-globes beside the tortoise. Other details include:
  • A worship ritual is described including the worship of Kurma in a 'triangular mandala'
  • It is stated 'As a gnat mounts the back of the elephant, so this god is mounted on the back of Kurma. This kurma is a digit of the digits of Krisna'

    Garuda Purana

In the Garuda Purana, two accounts of Kurma relating to the Samudra manthan are given, both of which are brief and almost identical. Notably, the second account explicitly names the 'pretty damsel' as Mohini, and is itself within a chapter that lists other avatars of Vishnu to include prince Sanandana and Mahidasa, expounder of the Pancaratra philosophy. Other details include:
  • Kurma is stated to be the 11th overall incarnation of Vishnu, and the second of His ten primary avatars
  • 'Kurma' is one of the thousand names of Vishnu
  • Relating to sacred rites. 'In the middle the Adharasakti, Kurma and Ananta should be worshipped'
  • Kurma is associated with the south-west ; Vishnu 'the base' as well as Ananta and Kurma
  • Relating to the support of existence, it is stated that 'Above the pedestal, to Laksmi called Sakti, the support of the universe. Above the pedestal, to Vayu and Kurma. Above that to Sesa and Kurma'

    Kurma Purana

The translator, Gupta, states in the introduction that the Kurma Purana is named as such 'because is was narrated by Kurma first to Indrayumna and then to the sages and the gods'. Otherwise, this Purana does not seem to elaborate or expand on the legend or characteristics of the Kurma avatar or Kasyapa. However, notably, there is an account of Brahma travelling across the waters and to his surprise encountering Krishna, which seems to parallel the account of Prajapati encountering the Tortoise in the Taittirtya Aranyaka.

Linga Purana

It seems that the Linga Purana does not relate the legend of Samudra manthan, although a brief mention is made, as quoted above. Other details include:
  • Kurma is mentioned as the seat of Shiva in ritual worship, and it is stated that the skull of Kurma is strung on the necklace of Shiva
  • Kurma is one of the 10 primary avatars of Vishnu for the good of the world; other avatars are due to the curse of Bhrgu

    Markandeya Purana

It seems that the Markandeya Purana does not relate the legend of Samudra manthan, although the Kurma incarnation of Vishnu is briefly mentioned, and an entire chapter is dedicated to describing the lands and people related to Kurma, as narrated by the sage Markandeya. Other details include:
  • It is stated 'Like a tortoise withdrawing its limbs, he, who, restraining his desires, lives with his mind centered in the souls, sees the Divine soul in the human soul' and 'Even as the tortoise withdraws unto itself all its lines, so having drawn unto him people's hearts, he himself exists with his own mind perfectly restrained'
  • Vishnu resides in Bharata as the tortoise
  • It is stated 'The man, who is looked on by the Nidhi the Kacchapa, becomes possessed of the quality of Tamas'

    Matsya Purana

The Matsya Purana dedicates several chapters to the legend of the Samudra manthan, which itself contains several notable variances. In this account, the Daityas led by Bali repeatedly defeat the Devas led by Indra due to being resurrected by the sage Sukra when killed, using a mantra provided by Shiva. Advised by Brahma, the Devas secure an alliance with Bali in Patala, the agreement of Mandarachala to be used as a churning rod, and the agreement of Sesa and Kurma - said to be 'endowed with 1/4 of Vishnu's power... to support the Earth' - as the rope and base of the churning rod, respectively. Unable the churn the Ocean of Milk by themselves, the Devas and Asuras approach Vishnu 'absorbed in deep meditation' in Vaikuntha for help, who agrees.
After producing several auspicious items and beings, several 'venomous insects and terrible beings' are produced along with 'hundreds of poisonous things' such as Halahala, before the emergence of a powerful poison-being called Kalakuta that wishes to destroy both the Devas and Demons. After challenging them to either swallow him or 'go to Lord Shiva', the latter is approached and swallows the poison-being before returning to his abode. The Ocean of Milk being churned once again produces more auspicious beings and items, including Dhanvantari with the nectar of immortality, before Vishnu 'assumes the form of a bewitching damsel' to take the nectar from the Asuras and give it to the Devas. The Asuras are then destroyed by Vishnu in battle using His 'terrible Chakra'. Other details include:
  • The Samudra manthan is stated to have taken place in the fourth of twelve wars between the Devas and Asuras
  • A verse of a mantra referencing Kurma is related to the throat and the feet
  • It is stated 'He should guard his limbs of body and keep them secret just as a tortoise'

    Narada Purana

In the Narada Purana, a brief synopsis of the Samudra manthan is given by Brahma to Mohini, as quoted above. There are two other notable mentions of this legend. The first is by Saunaka who said 'When there was an impediment at the time of churning the ocean for the sake of nectar, he held the mount Mandara on his back, for the welfare of the gods. I seek refuge in that Tortoise'. In the second, it is stated 'it was when the milk-ocean was churning that Kamoda was born among the four jewels of Virgins'. Other details include:
  • Several allegories of the tortoise drawing in its limbs are given, including in relation to the creation and withdrawal of living beings and withdrawing the sense organs
  • The division of the Earth - Kurma-vibhaga - is in relation to the Jyotisa, an auxiliary text of the Vedas
  • Kurma is one of the ten primary avatars of Vishnu

    Padma Purana

In the Padma Purana three accounts of the Samudra manthan are given, all beginning with Indra being cursed by Durvasas for arrogance. In the first, narrated by Pulastya, as a result of the curse the 'three worlds, along with Indra, were void of affluence... the Daityas and Danavas started military operations against gods', forcing them to seek refuge with Vishnu. Vasuki is used as a rope to churn the ocean. Notably, during the churning, Varuni is upon emerging rejected by the gods and accepted by the Asuras, the opposite of the account given in the Brahmanda Purana. Unnamed poison also emerges which is drunk by Shiva, before the emergence of Dhanvantari with the nectar of immortality as well as Lakshmi. Although the Asuras take the nectar, Vishnu assumes the form of Mohini to trick them and give it to the gods. The Asuras are destroyed, with the Danavas since then becoming 'eager for ladies'.
, or ten principle avatars of Vishnu.
In the second account, narrated by Suta, as a result of the curse the 'mother of the worlds' disappears, and the world is ruined by drought and famine, forcing the gods - oppressed by hunger and thirst - to seek refuge with Vishnu at the shore of the Milky Ocean. Ananta is used as a churning rope. On Ekadashi day, the poison Kalakuta emerges, which is swallowed by Shiva 'meditating upon Vishnu in his heart'. An evil being called Alaksmi them emerges and is told to reside in places such as where there is quarrel, gambling, adultery, theft, and so forth. The churning continues and auspicious beings and items emerge, including 'the brother of Laksmi, sprang up with nectar. Tulasi , Visnu's wife'. On this occasion, Vishnu assumes the form of Mohini merely to distribute the nectar amongst the gods, without mention of tricking the Asuras.
The third account, narrated by Shiva, is very similar to the others except with a far greater emphasis on Lakshmi, and although the poison Kalakuta emerges and is swallowed by Shiva, there is no mention of Alaksmi or the Mohini avatar. The Naga used as a rope for churning is referred to as 'the Lord of the Serpents'. Other details include:
  • Kurma is mentioned as an avatar of Vishnu, as a giver of boons, and is stated to have appeared during the fourth war between the Devas and Asuras ; during the churning, Indra is stated to have vanquished Prahlada
  • Relating to Kurma as the world-turtle, it is stated 'Due to truth, the sun rises; also the wind blows; the ocean would not cross its boundary nor would the Tortoise avert the earth' ; Kurma is also mentioned as the 'first tortoise', the prop of everything, cause of production of ambrosia, and the support of the Earth ; finally, after raising the earth from the waters in the form of a boar, it is stated that Vishnu placed it on the head of Sesa before taking the form of Kurma
  • Kurma is named as one of the 10 primary avatars of Vishnu by Yama, Brahma, and Shiva
  • The salagrama of Kurma is described as 'raised, round on the surface, and is filled with a disc. Marked with Kaustubha, it has a green colour'
  • Kurma is stated to reside in Vaikuntha ; and is one of the 108 names of Vishnu
  • Shiva gives salutations to Kurma, who 'extracted the Earth along with mountains, forests and groves, from inside the water of the deep ocean'

    Shiva Purana

In the Shiva Purana, neither of the two accounts of the Samudra manthan mention Kurma. Poison is generated by the churning in both accounts, although only in the first account is Shiva stated to have drank it. The second mentions the Mohini avatar of Vishnu incarnating at the 'behest of Siva'. Other details include:
  • It stated that 'On account of the alliance of Siva and Parvati, the earth quaked with the weight along with Sesa and Kacchapa. By the weight of Kacchapa, the cosmic air, the support of everything, was stunned and the three worlds became terrified and agitated' ; Kurma supports the Earth
  • The skull of Kurma is stated to be in the necklace of Shiva
  • Kurma is named as one of the 10 primary avatars of Vishnu
  • One of the ten 'vital breaths' is called 'Kurma' and is stated to be for 'the activity of closing the eyes'

    Skanda Purana

In the Skanda Purana four accounts of the Samudra manthan are given. In the first, the churning of the ocean of Milk takes place after Indra is cursed by the sage Brhaspati, resulting in the disappearance of Lakshmi, misery to all, and ruin of the Devas, defeated in battle by the Asuras who take their precious items such as gems to Patala. On the advice of Brahma, Indra and the Devas make a pact with Bali, leader of Asuras, to recover the gems from the Ocean of Milk. Unable to move the Mandara mountain to use as a churning rod, Vishnu is asked for help, who arrives on Garuda, takes the mountain to the ocean, and incarnates as Kurma. Vasuki is used as the churning rope. The Kalakuta poison generated envelopes the Devas and Daityas - causing ignorance and lust - before enveloping all existence and reducing the cosmic egg to ash. Shiva is approached for refuge, and the origin and need to worship Ganesha to 'achieve success in undertaking' is explained before Shiva drinks the poison. More information on Ganesha-worship is given before the churning resumes, producing many auspicious items and beings, including Lakshmi. Dhanvantari emerges with the nectar of immortality, which is taken by the Asuras. Vishnu incarnates as Mohini, and despite warning Bali that 'Women should never be trusted by a wise man' is still given the nectar which She gives to the Devas.
In the second account, Indra is again cursed by the sage Brhaspati, resulting in the disappearance of Laksmi, and with her, an absence of 'Penance, Purity, Mercy, Truth... True Dharma, Prosperity... Strength Sattva '. Hunger, poverty, anger, lust, flesh-eating, and perverse-thinking abound, including belief that adharma is dharma, and perverse interpretations of the Vedas to justify killing animals. Vishnu is approached for refuge by the Devas and instructs them to churn the Ocean of Milk. Indra forms a pact with the Asuras, Sesa is used as a churning rope with the Mandara Mountain, and Vishnu incarnates as Kurma as the base. After a thousand years of churning the poison Halahala is generated and swallowed by Shiva; the drops that fell are taken by serpents, scorpions, and some medicinal plants. The churning continues for another thousand years, producing auspicious items and beings, including Laksmi. Dhanvantari emerges with the pitcher of Amrita which is taken by the Asuras, and Vishnu assumes 'a marvellously beautiful feminine form that enchanted all the world'. Despite warning the Asuras not to trust her, Mohini is given the Amrita which is handed to the Devas before the Asuras are destroyed in battle.
, the female enchantress avatar of Vishnu.
In the third brief account, the churning takes place after 'a great loss of gems due to wicked souls' and the loss of righteousness. Vasuki is used as the churning cord as the Devas and Asuras 'placed the main plant of activity on the back of the tortoise and churned out the precious gems'. Many auspicious items and beings are generated, including Sura and Dhanvantari. Quarreling ensues between the Devas and Asuras, and Vishnu incarnates as 'the fascinating form of a woman' to beguile the demons as Indra gives them the Sura and via 'slight of hand' takes the Amrita. Halahala poison is also generated which is consumed by Shiva.
In the fourth account, the legend is briefly retold by Visvamitra. The details are much the same as the previous accounts, with Vasuki as the cord as the 'Kacchapa held up ', including the Kalakuta poison drunk by Shiva and the incarnation of Mohini to trick the Asuras. The notable exception is that the churning first produces a 'hideous' family of three of Ratnas ; rejected by both the Devas and Danavas, they are accepted by Ka.
Notably, reminiscent the account of Prajapati and the Tortoise in the Taittiriya Aranyaka, there is also an account, during the time of the universal dissolution, when Brahma 'assumed the form of a Khadyota ' and moved about for a thousand divine years before finding 'the Lord asleep in the form of a tortoise'. Woken by Brahma, Vishnu 'got up ejecting the three worlds that had been swallowed at the time of the close of the Kalpa' with all creation - including the Devas, Danavas, moon, sun, and planets - being generated from and by Him. Vishnu also sees the Earth 'was in the great ocean perched on the back of the tortoise'. Other details include:
  • Kurma is mentioned to have held the Mandara Mountain ;
  • After being resorted to by Tara and 'Permeated by her, Kurma, the sire of the universe, lifted up the Vedas'
  • Exploring the Linga of Shiva, 'The primordial Tortoise that was stationed as the bulbous root of the Golden Mountain as well as its support was seen by Acyuta '; It is also by Shiva's blessing that Sesa, Kurma, and others are capable of bearing the burden of that Linga
  • After Varaha lifted the earth out of the waters, Vishnu 'placed the Elephants of the Quarters, the King of Serpents and the Tortoise for giving her extra support. That receptacle of Mercy willingly applied his own Sakti in an unmanifest form as a support for them all' ; Bhrgu also states Kurma supports the earth ; and Sesa and Kurma are also later stated to stabilise the Earth
  • Kurma is mentioned where Vishnu is stated to be the annihilator in the form of Rudra
  • Kurma is named as one of 12 incarnations of Vishnu, who states to Brahma:
  • In the procedure for Puja Mandala construction, Matsya and Kurma should be installed in the South-West and depicted as animals below the waist but in human form above
  • It is stated that the Linga of Shiva evolved from 'the back of a tortoise ' and that 'The Bija of Vahni is accompanied by Vata and the Bija of Kurma '
  • It is stated that 'Like a tortoise that withdraws all its limbs, he who withdraws the sense-organs though the proper procedure of Pratyahara shall become free from sins'
  • Kumari - the Shakti of Kurma - has a noose in her hand and is located to the south of Mahalaksmi
  • 'Kurma' is one of the thousand names of Vishnu
  • Kurma is listed in the Dashavatara, or ten primary incarnations of Vishnu
  • Bhrgu refers to a Ksetra that stands on Kaccapa and states there will be a city named after Him, Bhrgukaccha
  • The star constellations in the form of Kurma are discussed, where it is also stated Kurma is stationed in Bharata and faces the east
  • A Holy spot called Prabhasa in Bharata is located to the south-west of the shrine of Kurma

    Varaha Purana

In the Varaha Purana, the legend of Samudra manthan is only briefly mentioned, as quoted above. Other details include:
  • Kurma is one of the 10 primary avatars of Vishnu
  • The feet of Vishnu should be adored as Kurma, and 'on Dvadasi lord Kurma-Narayana should be propitiated by giving gifts to Brahmins with daksina'

    Vayu Purana

In the Vayu Purana, the legend of Samudra manthan is only briefly mentioned. Kurma is not mentioned in this account or seemingly at all in this Purana. Otherwise, the allegory of the tortoise drawing in its limbs is made at least twice in regards to withdrawing passions and desires.

Vishnu Purana

In the Vishnu Purana, the churning of the ocean of Milk takes place after the sage Durvasas - stated by Wilson to be 'an incarnation of a portion of Siva' - curses Indra, resulting in the ruin of the Devas, the Earth, and the general population, as 'all beings became devoid of steadiness' and morality. On the northern shore of the Ocean of Milk, Hari is sought for refuge, and enjoins the Devas to churn the Ocean for Ambrosia with the Asuras, using the Mandara Mountain as a churning rod and Vasuki as the rope.
During the churning, Vishnu 'in the form of a tortoise , served as a pivot for the mountain... in other forms, amongst the gods and demons, drag the monarch of the serpent race '. Auspicious items and beings are first generated, before poison emerges 'of which the snake-gods took possession', followed by Dhanvantari with the Amrita, and Laksmi. The 'indignant Daityas' seize the Amrita before Vishnu incarnates as Mohini to deceive them and give the Amrita to the Devas. A battle ensues, but the Asuras and defeated and flee to Patala. Other details include:
  • Kurma is mentioned as an incarnation of Vishnu
  • Kurma is stated to reside in Bharata

    Upa-Puranas

Kalki Purana

The Kalki Purana is a prophetic minor work set at the end of Kali Yuga.

Vedantas

Laghu Yoga Vasishtha

Bhusanda, quoted above, is described by Swami Parmeshwaranand as a 'dispassionate and large-hearted crow'. In the Yoga Vasistha, an influential Vedanta text, Bhusanda tells the sage Vasistha that events have repeatedly occurred before and will continue to do so forever - including the appearance of avatars of Vishnu - albeit with variations. The Laghu Yoga Vasistha is a condensed version of the Yoga Vasistha.

Temples

Iconography

Kurma is depicted either zoomorphically as a tortoise, or more commonly in murtis and images anthropomorphically as half-man and half-tortoise.

Locations

There are four temples dedicated to this incarnation of Vishnu in India:
The name of the village mentioned above originates from the historical temple of Kurma called Varadarajaswamy, regarding the deity of this village.