Rigveda


The Rigveda is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is one of the four sacred canonical texts of Hinduism known as the Vedas.
The text is layered consisting of the Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. The Rigveda Samhita is the core text, and is a collection of 10 books with 1,028 hymns in about 10,600 verses. In the eight books – Books 2 through 9 – that were composed the earliest, the hymns predominantly discuss cosmology and praise deities. The younger books in part also deal with philosophical or speculative questions, virtues such as dāna in society, questions about the origin of the universe and the nature of god, and other metaphysical issues in their hymns.
The Rigveda is the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text. Its early layers are one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language. The sounds and texts of Rigveda have been orally transmitted since the 2nd millennium BCE. The Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the bulk of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, most likely between 1500 and 1200 BC, although a wider approximation of 1700–1100 BC has also been given.
Some of its verses continue to be recited during Hindu rites of passage celebrations and prayers, making it probably the world's oldest religious text in continued use.

Dating and historical context

Dating

According to Jamison and Brereton, in their 2014 translation of the Rigveda, the dating of this text "has been and is likely to remain a matter of contention and reconsideration". The dating proposals so far are all inferred from the style and the content within the hymns themselves. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium. Being composed in an early Indo-Aryan language, the hymns must post-date the Indo-Iranian separation, dated to roughly 2000 BC. A reasonable date close to that of the composition of the core of the Rigveda is that of the Mitanni documents of northern Syria and Iraq, which also mention the Vedic gods such as Varuna, Mitra and Indra. Other evidence also points to a composition close to 1400 BC.
The Rigveda's core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age, making it one of the few examples with an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between c. 1500 BC – 1200 BC. According to Michael Witzel, the initial codification of the Rigveda took place at the end of the Rigvedic period at ca. 1200 BCE, in the early Kuru kingdom. According to Asko Parpola, the Rigveda was systematized around 1000 BCE, at the time of the Kuru kingdom.

Historical and societal context

The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention of western scholarship from the times of Max Müller and Rudolf Roth onwards. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion. There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the early Andronovo culture of c. 2000 BC.
The Rigveda offers no direct evidence of social or political system in Vedic era, whether ordinary or elite. Only hints such as cattle raising and horse racing are discernible, and the text offers very general ideas about the ancient Indian society. There is no evidence, state Jamison and Brereton, of any elaborate, pervasive or structured caste system. Social stratification seems embryonic, then and later a social ideal rather than a social reality. The society was semi-nomadic and pastoral with evidence of agriculture since hymns mention plow and celebrate agricultural divinities. There was division of labor, and complementary relationship between kings and poet-priests but no discussion of relative status of social classes. Women in Rigveda appear disproportionately as speakers in dialogue hymns, both as mythical or divine Indrani, Apsaras Urvasi, or Yami, as well as Apāla Ātreyī, Godhā, Ghoṣā Kākṣīvatī, Romaśā, Lopāmudrā, Viśvavārā Ātreyī, Śacī Paulomī, Śaśvatī Āṅgirasī. The women of Rigveda are quite outspoken and appear more sexually confident than men, in the text. Elaborate and esthetic hymns on wedding suggest rites of passage had developed during the Rigvedic period. There is little evidence of dowry and no evidence of sati in it or related Vedic texts.
The Rigvedic hymns mention rice and porridge, in hymns such as 8.83, 8.70, 8.77 and 1.61 in some versions of the text, however there is no discussion of rice cultivation. The term "ayas" occurs in the Rigveda, but it is unclear which metal it was. Iron is not mentioned in Rigveda, something scholars have used to help date Rigveda to have been composed before 1000 BC. Hymn 5.63 mentions "metal cloaked in gold", suggesting metal working had progressed in the Vedic culture.
Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based on Proto-Indo-European religion, while most of the words used share common roots with words from other Indo-European languages. However, about 300 words in the Rigveda are neither Indo-Aryan nor Indo-European, states the Sanskrit and Vedic literature scholar Frits Staal. Of these 300, many – such as kapardin, kumara, kumari, kikata – come from Munda or proto-Munda languages found in the eastern and northeastern region of India, with roots in Austro-Asiatic languages. The others in the list of 300 – such as mleccha and nir – have Dravidian roots found in the southern region of India, or are of Tibeto-Burman origins. A few non-Indo-European words in the Rigveda – such as for camel, mustard and donkey – belong to a possibly lost Central Asian language. The linguistic sharing provide clear indications, states Michael Witzel, that the people who spoke Rigvedic Sanskrit already knew and interacted with Munda and Dravidian speakers.
The earliest text were composed in northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, and the more philosophical later texts were most likely composed in or around the region that is the modern era state of Haryana.

Text

Composition

The "family books" are associated with various clans and chieftains, containing hymns by members of the same clan in each book; but other clans are also represented in the Rigveda. The family books are associated with specific regions, and mention prominent Bharata and Pūru kings.
Tradition associates a rishi with each of the Rigveda. Most sūktas are attributed to single composers; for each of them the Rigveda includes a lineage-specific hymn. In all, 10 families of rishis account for more than 95 per cent of the
BookSageRegioĀprī
sage Agastya1.188316
Mandala 2GrtsamadaNW, Panjab2.3401
Mandala 3VishvamitraPanjab, Sarasvatī3.4983
Mandala 4VāmadevaNW, Panjab
Mandala 5AtriNW -> Panjab -> Yamunå5.5885
Mandala 6Bharadvāja NW, Panjab, Sarasvati; -> Gangå1.1423619
Mandala 7VasishthaPanjab, Sarasvati; -> Yamunå7.21276
Mandala 8Kanva and ĀngirasaNW, Panjab1.131315
Kashyapa9.5415
Bharata10.70170
Bhrgu10.110473

Collection and organisation

The codification of the Rigveda took place late in the Rigvedic or rather in the early post-Rigvedic period at ca. 1200 BCE, by members of the early Kuru tribe, when the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. The Rigveda was codified by compiling the hymns, including the arrangement of the individual hymns in ten books, coeval with the composition of the younger Veda Samhitas. According to Witzel, the initial collection took place after the Bharata victory in the Battle of the Ten Kings, under king Sudās, over other Puru kings. This collection was an effort to reconcile various factions in the clans which were united in the Kuru kingdom under a Bharata king. This collection was re-arranged and expanded in the Kuru Kingdom, reflecting the establishment of a new Bharata-Puru lineage and new srauta rituals.
The fixing of the samhitapatha and of the padapatha, occurred during the later Brahmana period, in roughly the 6th century BC.
The surviving form of the Rigveda is based on an early Iron Age collection that established the core 'family books' and a later redaction, coeval with the redaction of the other Vedas, dating several centuries after the hymns were composed. This redaction also included some additions and orthoepic changes to the Vedic Sanskrit such as the regularization of sandhi.

Organization

Mandalas

The text is organized in ten "books", or maṇḍalas, of varying age and length. The "family books", mandalas 2–7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books; they are arranged by length and account for 38% of the text.
The hymns are arranged in collections each dealing with a particular deity: Agni comes first, Indra comes second, and so on. They are attributed and dedicated to a rishi and his family of students. Within each collection, the hymns are arranged in descending order of the number of stanzas per hymn. If two hymns in the same collection have equal numbers of stanzas then they are arranged so that the number of syllables in the metre are in descending order. The second to seventh mandalas have a uniform format.
The eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The ninth mandala is entirely dedicated to Soma and the Soma ritual.
The hymns in the ninth mandala are arranged by both their prosody structure and by their length.
The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text. Nevertheless, some of the hymns in mandalas 8, 1 and 10 may still belong to an earlier period and may be as old as the material in the family books. The first mandala has a unique arrangement not found in the other nine mandalas. The first 84 hymns of the tenth mandala have a structure different than the remaining hymns in it.

Hymns and prosody

Each mandala consists of hymns or 's intended for various rituals.
The s in turn consist of individual stanzas called ', which are further analysed into units of verse called .
The hymns of the Rigveda are in different poetic metres in Vedic Sanskrit. The meters most used in the are the gayatri, anushtubh, trishtubh and jagati. The trishtubh meter and gayatri meter dominate in the Rigveda.
MeterRigvedic verses
Gayatri2451
Ushnih341
Anushtubh855
Brihati181
Pankti312
Trishtubh4253
Gagati1348
Atigagati17
Sakvari19
Atisakvari9
Ashti6
Atyashti84
Dhriti2
Atidhriti1
Ekapada6
Dvipada17
Pragatha Barhata388
Pragatha Kakubha110
Mahabarhata2
Total10402

Transmission

As with the other Vedas, the redacted text has been handed down in several versions, most importantly the Padapatha, in which each word is isolated in pausa form and is used for just one way of memorization; and the Samhitapatha, which combines words according to the rules of sandhi and is the memorized text used for recitation.
The Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the text's true meaning, and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by oral tradition alone. In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving breaking down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflections, as well as certain permutations. This interplay with sounds gave rise to a scholarly tradition of morphology and phonetics.
It is unclear as to when the Rigveda was first written down. The oldest surviving manuscripts have been discovered in Nepal and date to c. 1040 AD. According to Witzel, the Paippalada Samhita tradition points to written manuscripts c. 800-1000 CE. The Upanishads were likely in the written form earlier, about mid-1st millennium CE. Attempts to write the Vedas may have been made "towards the end of the 1st millennium BCE". The early attempts may have been unsuccessful given the Smriti rules that forbade the writing down the Vedas, states Witzel. The oral tradition continued as a means of transmission until modern times.

Recensions

Several shakhas of Rig Veda are known to have existed in the past. Of these, Śākala Shākha is the only one to have survived in its entirety. Another shakha that may have survived is the Bāṣkala, although this is uncertain.
The surviving padapatha version of the Rigveda text is ascribed to Śākala. The recension has 1,017 regular hymns, and an appendix of 11 hymns which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala, for a total of 1028 hymns. The recension includes eight of these hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 regular hymns for this śākhā. In addition, the recension has its own appendix of 98 hymns, the Khilani.
In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, the 1028 hymns of the Rigveda contain a total of 10,552 s, or 39,831 padas. The Shatapatha Brahmana gives the number of syllables to be 432,000, while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland has a total of 395,563 syllables ; counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the post-Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like súvar as svàr.
Three other shakhas are mentioned in Caraṇavyuha, a pariśiṣṭa of Yajurveda: Māṇḍukāyana, Aśvalāyana and Śaṅkhāyana. The Atharvaveda lists two more shakhas. The differences between all these shakhas are very minor, limited to varying order of content and inclusion of a few verses. The following information is known about the shakhas other than Śākala and Bāṣkala:
The Rigveda hymns were composed and preserved by oral tradition. They were memorized and verbally transmitted with "unparalleled fidelity" across generations for many centuries. According to Barbara West, it was probably first written down about the 3rd-century BCE. The manuscripts were made from birch bark or palm leaves, which decompose and therefore were routinely copied over the generations to help preserve the text.

Versions

There are, for example, 30 manuscripts of Rigveda at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, collected in the 19th century by Georg Bühler, Franz Kielhorn and others, originating from different parts of India, including Kashmir, Gujarat, the then Rajaputana, Central Provinces etc. They were transferred to Deccan College, Pune, in the late 19th century. They are in the Sharada and Devanagari scripts, written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of the Pune collection is dated to 1464. The 30 manuscripts of Rigveda preserved at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007.
Of these thirty manuscripts, nine contain the samhita text, five have the padapatha in addition. Thirteen contain Sayana's commentary. At least five manuscripts have preserved the complete text of the Rigveda. MS no. 5/1875-76, written on birch bark in bold Sharada, was only in part used by Max Müller for his edition of the Rigveda with Sayana's commentary.
Müller used 24 manuscripts then available to him in Europe, while the Pune Edition used over five dozen manuscripts, but the editors of Pune Edition could not procure many manuscripts used by Müller and by the Bombay Edition, as well as from some other sources; hence the total number of extant manuscripts known then must surpass perhaps eighty at least.

Scripts

Rigveda manuscripts in paper, palm leaves and birch bark form, either in full or in portions, have been discovered in the following Indic scripts:
The various Rigveda manuscripts discovered so far show some differences. Broadly, the most studied Śākala recension has 1017 hymns, includes an appendix of eleven valakhīlya hymns which are often counted with the eighth mandala, for a total of 1028 metrical hymns. The Bāṣakala version of Rigveda includes eight of these vālakhilya hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 hymns in the main text for this śākhā. The Bāṣakala text also has an appendix of 98 hymns, called the Khilani, bringing the total to 1,123 hymns. The manuscripts of Śākala recension of the Rigveda have about 10,600 verses, organized into ten Books. Books 2 through 7 are internally homogeneous in style, while Books 1, 8 and 10 are compilation of verses of internally different styles suggesting that these books are likely a collection of compositions by many authors.
The first mandala is the largest, with 191 hymns and 2006 verses, and it was added to the text after Books 2 through 9. The last, or the 10th Book, also has 191 hymns but 1754 verses, making it the second largest. The language analytics suggest the 10th Book, chronologically, was composed and added last. The content of the 10th Book also suggest that the authors knew and relied on the contents of the first nine books.
The Rigveda is the largest of the four Vedas, and many of its verses appear in the other Vedas. Almost all of the 1875 verses found in Samaveda are taken from different parts of the Rigveda, either once or as repetition, and rewritten in a chant song form. Books 8 and 9 of the Rigveda are by far the largest source of verses for Sama Veda. Book 10 contributes the largest number of the 1350 verses of Rigveda found in Atharvaveda, or about one fifth of the 5987 verses in the Atharvaveda text. A bulk of 1875 ritual-focussed verses of Yajurveda, in its numerous versions, also borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.

Contents

Altogether the Rigveda consists of:
In western usage, "Rigveda" usually refers to the Rigveda Samhita, while the Brahmanas are referred to as the "Rigveda Brahmanas". Technically speaking, however, "the Rigveda" refers to the entire body of texts transmitted along with the Samhita portion. Different bodies of commentary were transmitted in the different shakhas or "schools".
Only a small portion of these texts has been preserved: The texts of only two out of five shakhas mentioned by the Rigveda Pratishakhya have survived.
The late Shri Guru Charitra even claims the existence of twelve Rigvedic shakhas.
The two surviving Rigvedic corpora are those of the Śākala and the Bāṣkala shakhas.

Hymns

The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities, chief of whom are Indra, a heroic god praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra; Agni, the sacrificial fire; and Soma, the sacred potion or the plant it is made from. Equally prominent gods are the Adityas or Asura gods Mitra–Varuna and Ushas. Also invoked are Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, as well as deified natural phenomena such as Dyaus Pita, Prithivi, Surya, Vayu or Vata, Apas, Parjanya, Vac, many rivers. The Adityas, Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, Ashvins, Maruts, Rbhus, and the Vishvadevas as well as the "thirty-three gods" are the groups of deities mentioned.
Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the , as the followers of the Rigveda are called, two have come down to us, namely those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins. The Aitareya-brahmana and the Kaushitaki- brahmana evidently have for their groundwork the same stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however, considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight. There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them.
and is recited every year during the Durga Puja festival.
The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists of 30 chapters ; while the Aitareya has 40, divided into eight books, of five chapters each. The last 10 adhyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later addition though they must have already formed part of it at the time of Pāṇini, if, as seems probable, one of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation of the names of Brahmanas, consisting of 30 and 40 adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion occurs the well-known legend of Shunahshepa, whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the recital of which formed part of the inauguration of kings.
While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice, the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds of haviryajna'', or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, etc., whereupon follows the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 7–10 contain the practical ceremonial and 11–30 the recitations of the hotar. Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya, also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely enough that this person arranged the Brahmana and founded the school of the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work we have no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in opposition to the Paingya—the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the manuscripts calls it—the Brahmana of Sankhayana in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki.

Rigveda Aranyakas and Upanishads

Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a "forest book", or Aranyaka. The Aitareyaranyaka is not a uniform production. It consists of five books, three of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called mahavrata, or great vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, ascribed by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ashvalayana. The second and third books, on the other hand, are purely speculative, and are also styled the Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad. Again, the last four chapters of the second book are usually singled out as the Aitareya Upanishad, ascribed, like its Brahmana, to Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred to as the Samhita-upanishad. As regards the Kaushitaki-aranyaka, this work consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two and the 7th and 8th of which correspond to the first, fifth, and third books of the Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the highly interesting Kaushitaki Upanishad, of which we possess two different recensions. The remaining portions of the Aranyaka treat of the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, etc., ending with the vamsha, or succession of teachers.

Commentaries and Translations

Both Indian and Western Authors have contributed significantly in Translating, interpreting & commenting on the subject and have a varied degree of differences in results.

Indian Authors

Yaska a lexicographer, in his book titled Nirukta, asserts that Rigveda in the ancient tradition, can be interpreted in three ways - from the perspective of religious rites, from the perspective of the deities, and from the perspective of the soul. The fourth way to interpret the Rigveda also emerged in the ancient times, wherein the gods mentioned were viewed as symbolism for legendary individuals or narratives. It was generally accepted that creative poets often embed and express double meanings, ellipses and novel ideas to inspire the reader..
Later Madhvacharya a Hindu philosopher of the 13th century provided a commentary of the first 40 hymns of Rigveda in his book . Sayana a Sanskrit scholar of 14th century provided a commentary on the complete text of Rigveda in his book . This book has been translated to English by Max Müller and H. H. Wilson. Both Madvacharya and Sayanacharya studied at the Sringeri monastery.
Sri Aurobindo finds Sayana's interpretation to be ritualistic in nature and having often inconsistent interpretation of Vedic terms and trying to fit the meaning to a narrow mold, he finds that if sayana's interepretation were to be accepted it would seem to believe that Rig veda to be a unquestioning tradition of faith starting from an original error.
TitleCommentary/TranslationYearLanguageNotes
NiruktaYaska9 BCSanskritin his book on Etymology of vedas gives several possible transations and interepretation of key themes in Rig veda
Rig BhashyamMadhvacharya1285SanskritCommentary on the first 40 hymns of the Rigveda. The original book translated to English by Prof.K.T. Pandurangi is accessible
Rigveda SamhitaSayana]1360SanskritSāyaṇācārya a Sanskrit scholar wrote a treatise on the Vedas in the book Vedartha Prakasha. The Rigveda Samhita is available . This book was translated from Sanskrit to English by Max Muller in the year 1856. H.H.Wilson also translated this book into English as Rigveda Sanhita in the year 1856.
'Dayananda Saraswati1877-9HindiIncomplete translation. Later translated into by Dharma Deva Vidya Martanda.
The secret of Veda'Sri Aurobindo1914-1916EnglishCommentaries, General interpretation guidlines & partial translation
Series of articles in Journal of the University of BombayHari Damodar Velankar1940s–1960sEnglishPartial translation. Later published as independent volumes.
'Sri Aurobindo1946EnglishPartial translation published by N. K. Gupta, Pondicherry. Later republished several times
'Pandit H.P. Venkat Rao, LaxmanAcharya and a couple of other Pandits1947KannadaSources from Saayana Bhashya, SkandaSvami Bhashya, Taittareya Samhita, Maitrayini Samhita and other Samhitas. The Kannada translation work was commissioned by Maharaja of Mysore Jayachama Rajendra Wodeyar. The translations were compiled into 11 volumes.
'Ramgovind Trivedi1954Hindi
'Shriram Sharma1950sHindi
Rigveda ParichayaNag Sharan Singh1977English / HindiExtension of Wilson's translation. Republished by Nag, Delhi in 1990.
M. R. Jambunathan1978–80.TamilTwo volumes, both released posthumously.
The Rig VedaBibek Debroy, Dipavali Debroy1992EnglishPartial translation published by B. R. Publishing. The work is in verse form, without reference to the original hymns or mandalas. Part of Great Epics of India: Veda series, also published as The Holy Vedas.
The Holy Vedas: A Golden TreasuryPandit Satyakam Vidyalankar1983English
Ṛgveda for the LaymanShyam Ghosh2002EnglishPartial translation. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi.
ऋग्वेदGovind Chandra Pande2008HindiPartial translation. Published by Lokbharti, Allahabad
The Hymns of Rig VedaTulsi Ram2013EnglishPublished by Vijaykumar Govindram Hasanand, Delhi

Western and other Authors

The first published translation of any portion of the Rigveda in any European language was into Latin, by Friedrich August Rosen. Predating Müller's first printed edition of the text by 19 years, Rosen was working from manuscripts brought back from India by Colebrooke. H. H. Wilson was the first to make a translation of the Rig Veda into English, published in six volumes during the period 1850–88. Wilson's version was based on the commentary of. Müller published the most studied edition of the Rig Veda Samhita and Padapatha in 6 volumes Muller, Max, ed.. It has an English preface The birch bark from which Müller produced his translation is held at The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India.
Karl Friedrick Geldner completed the earliest scholarly translation of Rigveda in 1920s, in German. This was published in 1951. Louis Renou completed the first French translation between 1955 and 1969, while Elizarenkova completed a Russian translation between 1989 and 1999. Griffith's English translation came earlier, in 1892. However, Griffith's philology was outdated even in the 19th-century and questioned by scholars. H.D. Velankar's translations published over the 1950s and 1960s were significant improvements over Griffith's translation. Translations of shorter cherrypicked anthologies have been published by Wendy Doniger in 1981, and by Walter Maurer in 1986. According to Jamison and Brereton, these anthologies "tend to create a distorted view of the Rigveda".
Like all archaic texts, the Rigveda is difficult to translate into modern language, "There are no closely contemporary extant texts, which makes it difficult to interpret."
and early translations contained straightforward errors. Another issue is the choice of translation for technical terms such as mandala, conventionally translated "book", but more literally rendered "cycle". In 1994, Barend A. van Nooten and Gary B. Holland published the first attempt to restore Rigveda in its entirety in the poetic form. They identified elements that appeared to them as inappropriate combinations and obscuring the meaning of the text. They reconstructured the text into a poetic form.
Some notable translations of the Rig Veda include:
TitleCommentary/TranslationYearLanguageNotes
Rigvedae specimenFriedrich August Rosen1830LatinPartial translation with 121 hymns. Also known as Rigveda Sanhita, Liber Primus, Sanskrite Et Latine. Based on manuscripts brought back from India by Henry Thomas Colebrooke.
Rig-Veda, oder die heiligen Lieder der BrahmanenMax Müller1856GermanPartial translation published by F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig. In 1873, Müller published an editio princeps titled '. He also translated a few hymns in English.
'H. H. Wilson1850–88EnglishPublished as 6 volumes, by N. Trübner & Co., London.
'A. Langlois1870FrenchPartial translation. Re-printed in Paris, 1948–51.
Alfred Ludwig1876GermanPublished by Verlag von F. Tempsky, Prague.
'Hermann Grassmann1876GermanPublished by F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig
'Ralph T.H. Griffith1889–92EnglishRevised as The Rig Veda in 1896. Revised by J. L. Shastri in 1973.
'Karl Friedrich Geldner1907GermanPublished by Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart. Geldner's 1907 work was a partial translation; he completed a full translation in the 1920s, which was published after his death, in 1951. This translation was titled '. Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 33–37. Reprinted by Harvard University Press .
'A. A. Macdonell1917EnglishPartial translation. Published by Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Études védiques et pāṇinéennesLouis Renou1955–69FrenchAppears in a series of publications, organized by the deities. Covers most of Rigveda, but leaves out significant hymns, including the ones dedicated to Indra and the Asvins.
Hymns from the Rig-VedaNaoshiro Tsuji1970JapanesePartial translation
Rigveda: Izbrannye GimnyTatyana Elizarenkova1972RussianPartial translation, extended to a full translation published during 1989–1999.
' Laszlo Forizs 1995HungarianPartial translation published in Budapest
The Rig VedaWendy Doniger O'Flaherty1981EnglishPartial translation, along with critical apparatus. Published by Penguin. A bibliography of translations of the Rig Veda appears as an Appendix.
Pinnacles of India's Past: Selections from the RgvedaWalter H. Maurer1986EnglishPartial translation published by John Benjamins.
The Rig VedaBibek Debroy, Dipavali Debroy1992EnglishPartial translation published by B. R. Publishing. The work is in verse form, without reference to the original hymns or mandalas. Part of Great Epics of India: Veda series, also published as The Holy Vedas.
'H. H. Wilson, Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi2001English4-volume set published by Parimal. Revised edition of Wilson's translation. Replaces obsolete English forms with more modern equivalents. Includes the original Sanskrit text in Devanagari script, along with a critical apparatus.
Rig-VedaMichael Witzel, Toshifumi Goto2007GermanPartial translation. The authors are working on a second volume. Published by Verlag der Weltreligionen.
The RigvedaStephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton2014English3-volume set published by Oxford University Press. Funded by the United States' National Endowment for the Humanities in 2004.

Significance

The text is a highly stylized poetical Vedic Sanskrit with praise addressed to the Vedic gods and chieftains. Most hymns, according to Witzel, were intended to be recited at the annual New Year Soma ritual. The text also includes some nonritual poetry, fragments of mythology, archaic formulas, and a number of hymns with early philosophical speculations. Composed by the poets of different clans, including famed Vedic rishis such as Vishvamitra and Vasishtha, these signify the power of prestige therewith to vac, a tradition set in place. The text introduced the prized concepts such as Rta which inspired the later Hindu concept of Dharma. The Rigvedic verses formulate this Rta as effected by Brahman, a significant and non-self-evident truth. The text also contains hymns of "highly poetical value" – some in dialogue form, along with love stories that likely inspired later Epic and classical poets of Hinduism, states Witzel.
According to Nadkarni, several hymns of the Rigveda embed cherished virtues and ethical statements. For example, verses 5.82.7, 6.44.8, 9.113.4, 10.133.6 and 10.190.1 mention truthful speech, truthful action, self-discipline and righteousness. Hymn 10.117 presents the significance of charity and of generosity between human beings, how helping someone in need is ultimately in the self-interest of the helper, its importance to an individual and the society. According to Jamison and Brereton, hymns 9.112 and 9.113 poetically state, "what everyone really want is gain or an easy life", even a water drop has a goal – namely, "simply to seek Indra". These hymns present the imagery of being in heaven as "freedom, joy and satisfaction", a theme that appears in the Hindu Upanishads to characterize their teachings of self-realization.

Monism debate

While the older hymns of the Rigveda reflect sacrificial ritual typical of polytheism,
its younger parts, specifically mandalas 1 and 10, have been noted as containing monistic or henotheistic speculations.
A widely cited example of such speculations is hymn 1.164.46:
Max Müller notably introduced the term "henotheism" for the philosophy expressed here, avoiding the connotations of "monotheism" in Judeo-Christian tradition.
Other widely cited examples of monistic tendencies include hymns 1.164, 8.36 and 10.31, Other scholars state that Rigveda includes an emerging diversity of thought, including monotheism, polytheism, henotheism and pantheism, the choice left to the preference of the worshipper. and the Nasadiya Sukta, one of the most widely cited Rigvedic hymns in popular western presentations.
Ruse commented on the old discussion of "monotheism" vs. "henotheism" vs. "monism" by noting an "atheistic streak" in hymns such as :wikisource:The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 130|10.130.
Examples from Mandala 1 adduced to illustrate the "metaphysical" nature of the contents of the younger hymns include:
1.164.34: "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?";
1.164.34: "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?";
1.164.5: "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?";
1.164.6: "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?";
.20 : "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on.".

Reception in Hinduism

Shruti

The Vedas as a whole are classed as "shruti" in Hindu tradition.
This has been compared to the concept of divine revelation in Western religious tradition,
but Staal argues that "it is nowhere stated that the Veda was revealed", and that shruti simply means "that what is heard, in the sense that it is transmitted from father to son or from teacher to pupil".
The Rigveda, or other Vedas, do not anywhere assert that they are apauruṣeyā, and this reverential term appears only centuries after the end of the Vedic period in the texts of the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy.
The text of Rigveda suggests it was "composed by poets, human individuals whose names were household words" in the Vedic age, states Staal.

Medieval Hindu scholarship

By the period of Puranic Hinduism, in the medieval period, the language of the hymns had become "almost entirely unintelligible", and their interpretation mostly hinged on mystical ideas and sound symbolism.
According to the Puranic tradition, Ved Vyasa compiled all the four Vedas, along with the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Vyasa then taught the Rigveda samhita to Paila, who started the oral tradition. An alternate version states that Shakala compiled the Rigveda from the teachings of Vedic rishis, and one of the manuscript recensions mentions Shakala.
The authors of the Brahmanas| literature discussed and interpreted the Vedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rigveda by discussing the meanings of difficult words. In the 14th century, Sayana| wrote an exhaustive commentary on it.
A number of other commentaries were written during the medieval period, including the commentaries by Skandasvamin, Udgitha, Venkata-Madhava and Mudgala.

Contemporary Hinduism

Rigveda, in contemporary Hinduism, has been a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, with some hymns still in use in major rites of passage ceremonies, but the literal acceptance of most of the textual essence is long gone. Musicians and dance groups celebrate the text as a mark of Hindu heritage, through incorporating Rigvedic hymns in their compositions, such as in Hamsadhvani and Subhapantuvarali of Carnatic music, and these have remained popular among the Hindus for decades.
According to Axel Michaels, "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text." According to Louis Renou, the Vedic texts are a distant object, and "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat". According to Andrea Pinkney, "the social history and context of the Vedic texts are extremely distant from contemporary Hindu religious beliefs and practice", and the reverence for the Vedas in contemporary Hinduism illustrates the respect among the Hindus for their heritage.

Arya Samaj and Aurobindo movements

In the 19th- and early 20th-centuries, reformers like Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Sri Aurobindo discussed the philosophies of the Vedas. According to Robson, Dayananda believed "there were no errors in the Vedas, and if anyone showed him an error, he would maintain that it was a corruption added later".
Dayananda and Aurobindo interpret the Vedic scholars had a monotheistic conception. Aurobindo attempted to interpret hymns to Agni in the Rigveda as mystical. Aurobindo states that the Vedic hymns were a quest after a higher truth, define the Rta, conceive life in terms of a struggle between the forces of light and darkness, and sought the ultimate reality.

Ethnic origins

The Rigveda has been referred to in the "Indigenous Aryans" and Out of India theory. These theories are controversial.