Pandya dynasty


The Pandya dynasty, also known as the Pandyas of Madurai, was a dynasty of south India, one of the three ethnically Tamil lineages, the other two being the Chola and the Chera. The rulers of the three dynasties were referred to as "the three crowned rulers of the Tamil country". The Pandyas ruled extensive territories, at times including the large portions of present-day south India and Sri Lanka.Madurai was capital of the pandya kingdom.
The age and antiquity of the dynasty is difficult to establish. The early Pandya chieftains ruled their country from time immemorial, which included the inland city of Madurai and the southern port of Korkai. The country of the Pandyas finds mention in a number of Graeco-Roman sources and the edicts Maurya emperor Asoka. The Pandyas are also celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry. Greek and Latin accounts, coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to early centuries CE. The early historic Pandyas faded into obscurity upon the rise of the Kalabhra dynasty in south India.
The Pandyas revived under Kadungon towards the end of the 6th century, helped to disestablish the Kalabhras in south India. From 6th century to 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami or Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Pandyas, at one time or another, ruled or invaded the fertile estuary of Kaveri, the ancient Chera country and Venadu, the Pallava country and Sri Lanka. The Pandyas went into decline with the rise of the Cholas of Tanjore in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola Empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century. The Pandyas were very close allies of the Sinhalese and they often deposited their crowns and other royal insignia with the Sinhalese king for safe-keeping.
The Pandyas entered their "golden age" under Maravarman Sundara I and Jatavarman Sundara I, who expanded the empire into the Telugu country, south Kerala and conquered Sri Lanka. The Pandyas of Ucchangi, in the Tungabhadra Valley were related to the Pandyas of Madurai.
During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas, Cheras. An internal crisis in the Pandya empire coincided with the Khalji invasion of south India in 1310–11. The ensuing political crisis saw more sultanate raids and plunder, the loss of south Kerala, and north Sri Lanka and the establishment of the Madurai sultanate. In the mid-16th century, the Vijayanagara governors of Madurai declared independence and established the Madurai Nayak dynasty.
According to tradition, the legendary Sangams were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas, and some of the Pandya rulers claim to be poets themselves. The Pandya country was home to a number of renowned temples including Meenakshi Temple in Madurai. After the revival of the Pandya power by Kadungon, the Shaivite nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars rose to prominence. It is known that the Pandya rulers followed Jainism for a short period of time in history.

Etymology and origin legends

The word pandya is thought to be derived from the ancient Tamil word "pandu" meaning "old". The theory suggests that in early historic Tamil lexicon the word pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country, Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit. The etymology of pandya is still a matter of considerable speculation among scholars. Apart from the derivations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies.
According to the ancient Tamil legends, the three brothers Cheran, Cholan and Pandyan ruled in common at the southern city of Korkai. While Pandya remained at home, his two brothers Cheran and Cholan after a separation founded their own kingdoms in north and west. Epic poem Silappatikaram mentions that the emblem of the Pandyas was that of a fish.
North Indian traditions such as the Great Epics and the Puranas often associate southern India with Sage Agastya. Agastya appears prominently in medieval Tamil literature also.
Folklores attributes Alli Rani as one of the early historic rulers of the Pandyas. She is attributed as an "amazonian queen" whose servants were men and administrative officials and army were women. She is thought of ruling the whole western and northern coast of Sri Lanka from her capital Kudiramalai, where remains of what is thought of as her fort are found. She is sometimes seen as an incarnation of the Pandya associated gods, Meenakshi and Kannagi.
The Pandya kings were said to have belonged to the Lunar race. They claimed Pururavas and Nahusha as ancestors. Pururavas is listed as one of the ancestors in the Velvikudi inscription of Nedunchadaiyan Varagunavarman. The Sinnamanur plates of Rajasimha III similarly traces his lineage to the Lunar race and also claims that one of his ancestors, a Pandya occupied the seat of Indra and another Pandyan ancestor forced the ten-headed king of Lanka to sue for peace.

Archaeological sources

Pandyas are also mentioned in the inscriptions of Maurya emperor Asoka. In his inscriptions Asoka refers to the peoples of south India – the Chodas, Keralaputras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras. These polities, although not part of the Maurya empire, were on friendly terms with Asoka:
The earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan, figuring in the Tamil-Brahmi Mangulam inscription assigned to 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. The record documents a gift of rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic. It is assumed that the people found in the Mangulam inscription, Nedunjeliyan, Kadalan, and Izhanchadikan predates rulers such as Talaiyanganam Nedunjelyan and Palyaga-salai Mudukudimi Peruvaludi.
Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during c. 1st century BCE, in his Hathigumpha inscription, claims to have destroyed an old confederacy of Tamil countries which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired a large quantity of pearls from the Pandyas.
Silver punch-marked coins with the fish symbol of the Pandyas dating from around the same time have also been found.

Early Tamil literature

The early historic Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry. The poems refers to about twelve Pandya rulers. According to tradition, the legendary Sangams were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas. Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Agapporul, mention the legend of three separate Sangams and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas.
Pandya rulers – such as Nedunjeliyan, the Victor of Talaiyalanganam, and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi, the Patron of Several Sacrificial Halls – find mention in a number of poems.
Beside several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major works – Mathuraikkanci and Netunalvatai – which give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandya country during the early historic period. The Purananuru and Agananuru collections contain poems sung in praise of various Pandya rulers and also poems that were claimed to be composed by the rulers themselves.
Besides the poems, king Peruvaludi is also mentioned in later copper-plate grant. In the work Mathuraikkanci, the author Mankudi Maruthanar, refers to his patron, Talaihalanganum Nedunjeliyan, as the Lord of Korkai and the Warlord of the Southern Parathavar People. It contains a full-length description of Madurai and the Pandya country under the rule of Nedunjeliyan. In the famous battle of Talaiyalanganam, the Pandya is said to have defeated his enemies. He is also praised for his victory of Mizhalai and Mutturu, two "vel" centres along the ocean. The Netunalvatai by Nakkirar contains a description of king Nedunjeliyan's palace.

Foreign sources

Greek and Latin sources refer to the ancient Tamil country, same as the Tamilakam, as "Lymyrike" or "Damirice" and its ruling families.
Scholar John E. Hill identified Panyue as Pandya kingdom. However, others have identified it with an ancient state located in modern Burma or Assam.

Early Pandyas (c. 3rd century BCE – c. 3rd century CE)

emperor Asoka seems to have been on friendly terms with the people of south India and Sri Lanka. There are no indications that Asoka tried to conquer the extreme south India.
The three chiefly lines of the early historic south India – the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas – were known as the mu-vendar. They traditionally based at their original headquarters in the interior Tamil Nadu. The powerful chiefdoms of the three ventar dominated the political and economic life of early historic south India. The frequent conflicts between the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya are well documented in ancient Tamil poetry. The Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas also controlled the ports of Muziris, Korkai and Kaveri respectively. The gradual shift from chiefdoms to kingdoms seems to have occurred in the following period.The famous inscription of king Kharavela at Hathigumpha mentions the defeat of a confederacy of the "Tramira" countries which had been a threat to Kalinga. It also remembers the precious pearls brought to the capital as booty from the "Pandya" realm. The Pandya chiefdom was famous for its pearl fisheries and silk industry. Korkai and Alagankulam are believed to have been the exchange centres of the Pandyas. Korkai, a port at the mouth of the river Tambraparni, was linked to the famous pearl fisheries and Alagankulam was also developed as a port.
A number of coins attributed to early historic Pandyas are found from the region. Inscriptions, datable to c. 2nd century BCE, recording royal grants – both from royals and wealthy commoners – were also discovered from the Pandya country.
The Pandya seems to be the most prominent of the three "ventar" rulers. There are even references to a Pandya queen from 3rd century BCE representing a confederacy of the Tamil countries. Madurai, in south Tamil Nadu, was the most important cultural centre in south India as the core of the Tamil speakers. Megalithic relics such as menhirs, dolmens, urn burials, stone circles and rock-cut chambers/passages can be found in south India. Burial goods include iron objects, ivory ornaments, Black-and-Red Ware and even some Roman Imperial coins. The so-called "velir" hill chieftains are assumed to be associated with these megalithic burials.
Greek and Latin accounts, coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to early centuries CE. The early Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, were eventually displaced by the Kalabhra dynasty.
The following is a partial list of Pandya rulers from early historic south India: The early Tamil poems mention twelve Pandya rulers.

  • Koon Pandya
  • Nedunjeliyan I
  • Puda-pandya
  • "Palyagasalai" Mudukudumi Peruvaludi
  • Nedunjeliyan II
  • Nan Maran
  • Nedunj Cheliyan III
  • Maran Valudi
  • Kadalan Valuthi
  • Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan
  • Ukkirap Peruvaludi

Pandya revival (7th–10th centuries CE)

The Pandya kingdom was revived by king Kadungon towards the end of the 6th century CE. In the Velvikudi inscription, a later copper-plate, Kadungon appears as the "destroyer" of the "anti-Brahmanical" Kalabhra kings. With the decline of the Kalabhra dynasty, the Pandyas grew steadily in power and territory. With the Cholas in obscurity in Uraiyur, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.
From 6th century to 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Badami Chalukyas were eventually replaced by the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. The Pandyas took on the growing Pallava ambitions in south India, and from time to time they also joined in alliances with the kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau. In the middle of the 9th century, the Pandyas had managed to advance as far as Kumbakonam.
Sendan, the third king of the Pandyas of Madurai, is known for expanding his kingdom to the Chera country. Arikesari Maravarman, the fourth Pandya ruler, is known for his battles against the Pallavas of Kanchi. Pallava king Narasimhavarman I, the famous conqurer of Badami, claimed to have defeated the Pandyas. Chalukya king Paramesvaravarman I "Vikramaditya" is known to have fought battles with the Pallavas, the Gangas, and probably with the Pandyas too, on the Kaveri basin.
Kirtivarman II, the last Chalukya king, managed to lose to his southern countries as a result of his battles with the Pandyas. Pandya kings Maravarman Rajasimha I and Nedunjadaiyan/Varagunavarman I threatened Pallava king Nandivarman II Pallavamalla who had managed to defeat the Gangas in around 760 CE. Varagunavarman I invaded the Pallava country, conquered the Kongu country and Venadu. King Srimara Srivallabha sailed to Sri Lanka, subjugated king Sena I, and sacked his capital Anuradhapura. However, Srimara Srivallabha was soon overpowerd by Pallava king Nripatunga. Sena II, the king of Sri Lanka, invaded the Pandya country, sacked Madurai and chose Varagunavarman II as the new king soon after. It is proposed that the start of the Kollam Era, the Kerala calendar, in 825 CE marked the liberation of Venadu from Pandya control.
During the rule of Dantivarman, the Pallava territory was reduced by the encroachment from the Pandyas from the south. Pallava king Nandivarman III was able to defeat the Pandyas and Telugu-Chodas with the help of the Gangas and the emerging Cholas.
Chronological list of the Pandya kings.

Under Chola influence (10th–13th centuries)

While the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas were busy engaging the Pallavas, with the Gangas and the Simhalas also in the mix, the Cholas emerged from the Kaveri delta and took on the chieftains of Thanjavur. The Chola king Vijayalaya conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Mutharaiyar chieftain around c. 850 CE. The Pandya control north of the Kaveri river was severely weakened by this move. Pandya ruler Varaguna-varman II responded by marching into the Chola country and facing a formidable alliance of Pallava prince Aparajita, the Chola king Aditya I and the Ganga king Prithvipati I. The Pandya king suffered a crushing defeat in a battle fought near Kumbakonam.
By c. 897 CE, Chola king Aditya I was the master of the old Pallava, Ganga and Kongu countries. It is a possibility that Aditya I conquered the Kongu country from the Pandya king Parantaka Viranarayana. Parantaka I, successor to Aditya, invaded the Pandya territories in 910 CE and captured Madurai from king Maravarman Rajasimha II. Rajasimha II received help from the Sri Lankan king Kassapa V, still got defeated by Parantaka I in the battle of Vellur, and fled to Sri Lanka. Rajasimha then found refuge in the Chera country, leaving even his royal insignia in Sri Lanka, the home of his mother.
The Cholas were defeated by a Rashtrakuta-lead confederacy in the battle of Takkolam in 949 CE. By mid-950s, the Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality. It is a possibility that Pandya ruler Vira Pandya defeated Chola king Gandaraditya and claimed independence. Chola ruler Sundara Parantaka II responded by defeating Vira Pandya in two battles. The Pandyas were assisted by Sri Lanka forces of king Mahinda IV.
Chola emperor Rajaraja I is known to have attacked the Pandyas. He fought against an alliance of the Pandya, Chera and Sri Lankan kings, and defeated the Cheras and "deprived" the Pandyas of their ancient capital Madurai. Emperor Rajendra I continued to occupy the Pandya kingdom, and even appointed a series of Chola viceroys with the title "Chola Pandya" to rule from Madurai. The very of beginning of Chola emperor Kulottunga's rule was marked by the loss of Sri Lanka and a rebellion in the Pandya country.
The second half of the 12th century witnessed a major internal crisis in the Pandya country. The neighbouring kingdoms of Sri Lanka, under Parakramabahu I, Venadu Chera/Kerala, under the Kulasekharas, and the Cholas, under Rajadhiraja II and Kulottunga III, joinined in and took sides with any of the two princes or their kins.
The following list gives the names of the Pandya kings who were active during the 10th century and the first half of 11th century.

  • Sundara Pandya I
  • Vira Pandya I
  • Vira Pandya II
  • Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa
  • Jatavarman Sundara Chola Pandya
  • Maravarman Vikrama Chola Pandya
  • Maravarman Parakrama Chola Pandya
  • Jatavarman Chola Pandya
  • Srivallabha Manakulachala
  • Maravarman Srivallabha
  • Parakrama I
  • Kulasekara III
  • Vira Pandya III
  • Jatavarman Srivallabha
  • Jatavarman Kulasekara I

Pandya empire (13th–14th centuries)

The Pandya empire included extensive territories, at times including large portions of south India and Sri Lanka. The Pandya king at Madurai controlled these vast regions through the collateral family branches subject to Madurai. The kingdom was shared among several male royals of the family, one of them enjoying control over the rest.
The 13th century saw the rise of seven prime Pandya "Lord Emperors", who ruled the kingdom alongside other Pandya royals. Their power reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara I in the middle of the 13th century.

  • Maravarman Sundara Pandya I
  • Sundaravarman Kulasekara II
  • Maravarman Sundara Pandya II
  • Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I
  • Maravarman Kulasekara Pandya I
  • Sundara Pandya IV
  • Vira Pandya IV
The foundation for the Pandya supremacy in south India was laid by Maravarman Sundara I early in the 13th century. He succeeded his older brother Jatavarman Kulasekhara in 1216. He invaded the Chola country, sacked Uraiyur and Thanjavur, and drove the Chola king Kulothunga III into exile. The Chola king subsequently made a formal submission to Maravarman Sundara I and acknowledged his overlordship. Attempts by the next Chola king Rajaraja III for self-rule, with the help of the Hoysalas king Narasimha II, resulted in a battle between the Pandya and Hoysala forces at Mahendramangalam on the Kaveri Valley. Maravarman Sundara I was defeated and Rajaraja III was restored in the Chola country. Sometime later Chola prince Rajendra III attacked the Pandyas and defeated two Pandya royals including Maravarman Sundara II. Hoysala king Somesvara then came to the aid of the Pandyas, defeated Rajendra III and then made peace with the Cholas.

Pandya revival under Jatavarman Sundara Pandya

ascended the Pandya throne in 1251 CE. He led his army to the Chola country, to Sri Lanka and to south Kerala. He was also successful in confining the Hoysala control to the Mysore Plateau. Kanchi functioned as the second major city in the kingdom. In his conquests, Jatavarman Sundara I was assisted by number of Pandya royals such as Jatavarman Vira Pandya.
Jatavarman Sundara I subdued Rajendra III around 1258–1260 CE and made him pay tribute. The rule of the Cholas ended c. 1279 with Rajendra III. The Pandya attacked the Hoysalas in the Kaveri and captured the fort of Kannanur Koppam. Hoysala king Somesvara was forced to fall back into the Mysore Plateau. The Hoysala king, pressed by enemies from north and south, "assigned" the southern half of his kingdom to his younger son Ramanatha. Somesvara was eventually killed by the Pandya in 1262 CE. Ramanatha managed to recover Kannanur and hold against the Pandya power. Jatavarman Sundara I also came into conflict with the Kadava ruler Kopperunjinga II. It seems that Bana and Kongu countries came under the Pandya rule during the wars against the Hoysalas and the Kadavas. Jatavarman Sundara I also fought the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati. Sri Lanka was invaded by Jatavarman Sundara I in 1258 and on his behalf by his younger brother Jatavarman Vira II between 1262 and 1264 CE. The island was again invaded and defeated by Jatavarman Vira II in 1270 CE.
Sundara Pandya I was succeeded by Maravarman Kulasekara I. Around 1279 the combined force of Hoysala king Ramanatha and Rajendra III was defeated by Maravarman Kulasekara I. Maravarman Kulasekara I, now virtually unchallenged, ruled over the Chola country and southern Tamil speaking portions of Hoysala kingdom. He also invaded Sri Lanka, ruled by Bhuvanaikabahu I, "carried away to the Pandya country the venerable Tooth Relic", and the wealth of the island. Sri Lanka remained under Pandya control till c. 1308-09 CE.

Decline of Pandya empire

After the death of Maravarman Kulasekhara I, his sons Vira Pandya IV and Sundara Pandya IV fought a war of succession for control of the empire. It seems that Maravarman Kulasekhara wanted Vira Pandya to succeed him. Unfortunately, the Pandya civil war coincided with the Khalji raids in south India. Taking advantage of the political situation, the neighbouring Hoysala king Ballala III invaded the Pandya territory. However, Ballala had to retreat to his capital, when Khalji general Malik Kafur invaded his kingdom at the same time. After subjugating Ballala III, the Khalji forces marched to the Pandya territory in March 1311. The Pandya brothers fled their headquarters, and the Khaljis pursued them unsuccessfully. By late April 1311, the Khaljis gave up their plans to pursue the Pandya princes, and returned to Delhi with the plunder. By 1312 the Pandya control over south Kerala was also lost.
After departure of the Khaljis, Vira and Sundara Pandya resumed their conflict. Sundara Pandya was defeated, and sought help from the Khaljis. With their help, he regained control of the South Arcot region by 1314. Subsequently, there were two more expeditions from the sultanate in 1314 led by Khusro Khan and in 1323 by Ulugh Khan under sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq.
The family quarrels and the sultanate invasions shattered the Pandya empire beyond revival and coinage discoveries made imply that the Pandyas were left with the old South Arcot region. In 1323, the Jaffna kingdom declared its independence from the crumbling Pandya influence.
While the previous sultanate raids were content with plunder, the Tughluqs under Ulugh Khan annexed the former Pandya dominions to the sultanate as the province of Ma'bar. Most of south India came under the sultanate rule and was divided into five provinces – Devagiri, Tiling, Kampili, Dorasamudra and Ma'bar. Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan was appointed governor of the newly created southern-most Ma'bar province. In c. 1334, Jalal ud-Din Hasan Khan declared his independence and created Madurai sultanate. The Pandyas shifted their capital to Tenkasi and continued to rule a small area until the end of the 16th century. They were referred as Tenkasi Pandyas.
Bukka Raya I of Vijayanagara empire conquered the city of Madurai in c. 1370, imprisoned the sultan, released and restored Arcot's prince Sambuva Raya to the throne. Bukka Raya I appointed his son Veera Kumara Kampana as the viceroy of the Tamil region. Meanwhile, Madurai sultanate was replaced by the Nayak governors of Vijayanagara in 1378. In 1529 the Nayak governors declared independence and established Madurai Nayak dynasty.

Descendants

Although the Pandyas of Tenkasi died out at the end of the 16th century, two families still claim descent from the Pandya dynasty. The Poonjar clan claim ancient descent from the Pandyas. Legend goes that, during an invasion by the Chola king Kulothonga I, a Pandyan prince named Manivikrama Kulasekara fled into Kerala. There they managed to obtain some land and establish a chieftaincy for himself named Poonjar. However in the late 17th century, there were no heirs in the dynasty and so members of the Sakkara Kovilakom were adopted, and continued the family line. The line survives today, and several of its members have become eminent personalities in society.
The other main family to claim this descent is the Pandalam clan. According to legend, a prince of the Chambazhannur branch of the Pandyas was forced by scheming ministers to flee over the Western Ghats. Eventually they settled in Konni and established their own kingdom in 903 CE. During the Chola invasion of the Chera land in the 12th century, they again were forced to relocate to Pandalam. They were never integrated into the Travancore kingdom until well after the 18th century, but all their temples were placed under the Travancore Dewaswom Board. Many family members continue to play an active role in society.

Economy and society

merchants frequented the ancient Tamil country, present day south India and Sri Lanka, securing contacts with the Tamil chiefdoms of the Pandya, Chola and Chera families. The western sailors also established a number of trading settlements on the harbours of the ancient Tamil region.
The trade with South Asia by the Greco-Roman world flourished since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The contacts between south India and the Middle East continued even after the Byzantium's loss of the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea in the 7th century CE.
The Pandya country, located at the extreme south-western tip of South Asia, served as an important meeting point throughout the history of the India. The location was economically and geopolitically significant as a key point connecting the shipping between Southeast Asia and the Middle East.

Coinage

The early coins of Tamilakam bore the symbols of the Three Crowned Kings, the tiger, the fish and the bow, representing the symbols of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras. Coins of Pandyas bear the legend of different Pandya ruler in different times. The Pandyas had issued silver punch-marked and die struck copper coins in the early period. A few gold coins were attributed to the Pandya rulers of this period. These coins bore the image of fish, singly or in pairs, which where their emblem.
Some of the coins had the names Sundara, Sundara Pandya or merely the letter 'Su' were etched. Some of the coins bore a boar with the legend of 'Vira-Pandya. It had been said that those coins were issued by the Pandyas and the feudatories of the Cholas but could not be attributed to any particular king.
The coins of Pandyas were basically square. Those coins were etched with elephant on one side and the other side remained blank. The inscription on the silver and gold coins during the Pandyas, were in Tamil-Brahmi and the copper coins bore the Tamil legends.
The coins of the Pandyas, which bore the fish symbols, were termed as 'Kodandaraman' and 'Kanchi' Valangum Perumal'. Apart from these, 'Ellamthalaiyanam' was seen on coins which had the standing king on one side and the fish on the other. 'Samarakolahalam' and 'Bhuvanekaviram' were found on the coins having a Garuda, 'Konerirayan' on coins having a bull and 'Kaliyugaraman' on coins that depict a pair of feet.

Pearl fishing

The early historic Pandya country was famous for its supply of pearls. The ancient port of Korkai, in present-day Thoothukudi, was the center of pearl trade. Written records from Graeco-Roman and Egyptian voyagers give details about the pearl fisheries off the Gulf of Mannar. Megasthenes reported about the pearl fisheries, indicating that the Pandyas derived great wealth from the pearl trade.
Convicts were according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea used as pearl divers in Korkai. The Periplus even mentions that "pearls inferior to the Indian sort are exported in great quantity from the marts of Apologas and Omana". map showing ancient trade routes.The pearls from the Pandya country were also in demand in the kingdoms of north India. Literary references of the pearl fishing mention how the fishermen, who dive into the sea, avoid attacks from sharks, bring up the right-whorled chank and blow on the sounding shell.

Religion

The Pandians were devout followers of Hinduism and were primarily Shaivaites. The Pandya country was home to a number of renowned temples including Meenakshi Temple in Madurai. After the revival of the Pandya power by Kadungon, the Shaivite nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars of the Bhakti movement rose to prominence.
It is known that the Pandya rulers followed Jainism for a short period of time in history.

Architecture

Rock cut and structural temples were a significant part of the Pandya architecture. The vimana and mandapa are some of the features of the Pandya temples.
Groups of small temples are seen at Tiruchirappalli district of Tamil Nadu. The Shiva temples have a Nandi bull sculpture in front of the maha mandapa. In the later stages of Pandyas rule, finely sculptured idols, gopurams on the vimanas were developed. Gopurams are the rectangular entrance and portals of the temples.
Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple in Tirunelveli were built during the reign of the Pandyas.