List of early medieval watermills


This list of early medieval watermills comprises a selection of European watermills spanning the early Middle Ages, from 500 to 1000 AD.

Historical overview

Largely unaffected from the turbulent political events following the demise of the Western Roman Empire, the importance of watermilling continued to grow under the new Germanic lords. The sharp rise in numbers of early medieval watermills coincided with the appearance of new documentary genres which were more inclined to address such a relatively mundane device than the ancient urban-centered literary class had been. This partly explains the relative abundance of medieval literary references to watermills compared to former times.
The quantitative growth of medieval evidence appears to be more than a mere reflection of the changing nature of surviving sources. By Carolingian times, references to watermills in the Frankish Realm had become "innumerable". At the time of the compilation of the Domesday Book, there were an estimated 6,500 watermills in England alone.
By the early 7th century, watermills were well established in Ireland, and began to spread from the former territory of the empire into the non-romanized parts of Germany a century later. The introduction of the ship mill and tide mill in the 6th century, both of which yet unattested for the ancient period, allowed for a flexible response to the changing water-level of rivers and the Atlantic Ocean, thus demonstrating the technological innovativeness of early medieval watermillers.

Earliest evidence

Below the earliest medieval evidence for different types of watermills. This list complements its ancient counterpart.
DateWater-powered mill typesFind spot Location
537Ship millProcop V, 19.19–22Rome
6th centurySawmill; crank and connecting rod system without gear trainGerasa and EphesusJordan and Turkey
6th centuryVertical-wheeled tide millKilloteran near WaterfordIreland
c. 630Horizontal-wheeled tide millLittle Island IIreland
c. 636Horizontal-wheeled mill BallykilleenIreland

Written sources

In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed.
ReferenceLocationDateType of evidenceComments on
Annals of Ulster650Annal
Benedict of Nursia, Regula 66.6–7529/547Possible watermill
Caesarius of Arles, Sermones, VIII, 4Early 6th century
Cassiodorus, Variae III, 31.2510/511
Charter of king Childebert IParis556CharterShip mill
Charter of king Dagobert IITrier646Charter
Charter of king Ethelbert of Kent762Charter
CharterWang-Thulbach754CharterPossible watermill
ChartersLorsch Abbey760s onwardsCharter
Edictus Rothari 149–151643Legal code
Gregorius Turonensis, Historia Francorum III, 19Dijonc. 575HistoriographyShip mill
Gregorius Turonensis, Vitae Patrum, XVIII, 2484/507Hagiography
Lex Alamannorum, 79–80717/719Legal code
Lex Baivariorum, IX, 2Probably 725/728Legal code
Lex Visigothorum, VII, 2.12 and VIII, 4.30568/586Legal code
Marius Aventicius, ChronicaGeneva563AnnalShip mill
"Muliheim"Near Niederalteich731CharterLikely watermill site
Nomos georgikós 81–82Late 7th centuryLegal code
Pactus Alamannorum, V, 14Early 7th centuryLegal code
Pactus legis Salicae, Recensio Guntchramna, X, 6; XII, 1–3; XXXI, 3567/596Legal code
Procop V, 19.19–22Rome537HistoriographyShip mills
Senchus Mòr, De ceithri slichtaib Athgabálac. 600Legal code
Venantius Fortunatus, Carmina, III, 12, 37–8c. 600
Vita Haimhrammi, 37Thuringiac. 770HagiographyWatermill machinery
Vita Leobae, 12c. 740Hagiography
Vita S. Orienti, II, 3c. 380/420?Hagiography
Vita Sturmi, 20Fuldac. 765HagiographyMill-channel
Vita S. Brigidae virginis, cols. 787–8 Mignec. 650Hagiography
Vita S. Remigi episcopi Remensis, 17486/511Hagiography

Archaeological finds

Watermill sites

Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the early medieval period.
SiteCountryDateIdentification/Remains
EbbsfleetEnglandEarly 8th centuryHorizontal-wheeled tide mill
Old Windsor IEnglandProbably late 7th centuryMill-channel, woodwork of three vertical water-wheels
Old Windsor IIEngland9th or 10th centuryMill-channel, horizontal-wheeled mill
Raunds, West CottonEnglandLate SaxonLeat, sluice gate, chute, stake and wattle lined and stone surfaced wheel-pit
TamworthEnglandBetween 846 and 864Entire establishment
DasingGermany696/697Vertical-wheeled undershot or breastshot mill, mill-pond, mill-race, fragments of mill-stones
BallykilleenIrelandc. 636Horizontal-wheeled mill
CloontycarthyIrelandc. 833Entire establishment
DrumardIrelandc. 782Horizontal-wheeled mill
Killoteran near WaterfordIreland6th centuryVertical-wheeled tide mill
Little Island IIrelandc. 630Horizontal-wheeled tide mill
Little Island IIIreland7th centuryVertical-wheeled tide mill
MorettIrelandc. 710Vertical-wheeled undershot mill
GerasaJordan6th centurySawmill; crank and connecting rod system without gear train
Nendrum Monastery millNorthern Ireland619 & 789Horizontal-wheeled tide mill
EphesusTurkey6th centurySawmill; crank and connecting rod system without gear train; multiple mill complex with at least five watermills

Millstones

The following list comprises stray finds of early medieval millstones. Note that there is no way to distinguish millstones driven by water-power from those powered by animals turning a capstan. Most, however, are assumed to derive from watermills.
SiteCountryDate Remains
StroudEnglandProbably Anglo-SaxonMill-paddles from horizontal wheel
MoycraigIreland9th centuryHorizontal paddle-wheel, hub and shaft, complete with pebble bearing