List of ancient watermills


This list of ancient watermills presents an overview of water-powered grain-mills and industrial mills in the classical antiquity from their Hellenistic beginnings through the Roman imperial period.

Historical overview

The watermill is the earliest instance of a machine harnessing natural forces to replace human muscular labour. As such it holds a special place in the history of technology and also in economic studies where it is associated with growth.
The initial invention of the watermill appears to have occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the rise of Hellenistic science and technology. In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel. Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain, crushing ore, sawing stones and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.
An increased research interest has greatly improved our knowledge of Roman watermill sites in recent years. Numerous archaeological finds in the western half of the empire now complement the surviving documentary material from the eastern provinces; they demonstrate that the breakthrough of watermill technology occurred as early as the 1st century AD and was not delayed until the onset of the Middle Ages as previously thought. The data shows a wide spread of grain-mills over most parts of the empire, with industrial mills also being in evidence in both halves. Although the prevalence of grain-mills naturally meant that watermilling remained a typically rural phenomenon, it also rose in importance in the urban environment.
The data below spans the period until ca. 500 AD. The vast majority dates to Roman times.

Earliest evidence

Below the earliest ancient evidence for different types of watermills and the use of water-power for various industrial processes. This list is continued for the early Middle Ages here.
DateWater-powered mill typesReference Modern Country
Possibly first half of 3rd century BCHorizontal-wheeled millByzantium Turkey
Possibly c. 240 BCVertical-wheeled millAlexandria Egypt
Before 71 BC?Grain-mill Strabon, XII, 3, 30 C 556Turkey
40/10 BCUndershot wheel millVitruvius, X, 5.2Unspecified
40/10 BCPossible kneading machineVitruvius, X, 5.2Unspecified
20 BC/10 ADOvershot wheel millAntipater of Thessalonica, IX, 418.4–6Unspecified
c. 70 ADTrip hammerPliny, Naturalis Historia, XVIII, 23.97Italy
73/4 ADPossible fulling millAntiochSyria
2nd century ADMultiple mill complexBarbegal millFrance
Late 2nd century ADBreastshot wheel millLes Martres-de-VeyreFrance
Second half of 3rd century ADSawmill; crank and connecting rod system with gear trainHierapolis sarcophagusTurkey
Late 3rd or early 4th century ADTurbine millChemtou and TestourTunisia
Late 3rd or early 4th century ADPossible tanning millSaepinumItaly
?Possible furnaceMarseilleFrance

Written sources

In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed.
ReferenceLocationDateType of evidenceComments on
Ammianus Marcellinus, 18.8.11Amida359 ADHistoryMultiple mill complex
Antipater of Thessalonica, IX, 418.4–6Unspecified20 BC/10 ADPoemEarliest reference to overshot wheel mill
Ausonius, Mosella, 362–364Ruwer riverc. 370 ADPoemWater-powered marble saws and grain-mills
BeroeaMacedonia2nd century ADDecreeTax revenue from watermills
Cedrenus, Historiarum compendium, p. 295 Indiac. 325 ADHistory
CG-CI, pp. 86–90, no. 41Corinth6th century AD
CIL, III, 5866Günzburg1st/3rd century ADEpigraphyMiller’s guild
CIL, III, 14969, 2Promona1st/4th century ADEpigraphy
CIL, VI, 1711c. 480 ADEpigraphy
Codex Justinianus, XI, 43, 10, 3Constantinople474/491 ADLegal code
Codex Theodosianus, XIV, 15.4398 ADLegal code
Diocletian, XV, 54301 ADPrice edict
Euchromius, VII, pp. 138–9, no. 169Sardis4th to 5th/6th century ADEpigraphyWatermill engineer
Gregory of Nyssa, In Ecclesiasten, III, 656A Mignec. 370/390 ADTheologyWater-powered marble saws?
John Cassian, Conlationes Patrum, I, 18426 AD?Theology
LetterEgypt5th century ADPossible watermill
Libanius, Or. 4.29Antioch380s ADRhetoricTax on watermills
MAMA, VII, p. 70, no. 305, lines 29–32Orcistusc. 329 ADEpigraphyTown privilege
Mar. Aur. Apollodotos KalliklianosHierapolisSecond half of 3rd century ADEpigraphyMember of guild of water-millers
MolitorChâteauneuf1st century ADEpigraphy
Palladius, Opus agriculturae, I, 41, 4th/5th century ADTreatiseUse of waste water to drive watermills
Pliny, Naturalis Historia, XVIII, 23.97Italyc. 70 ADEncyclopediaWater-powered pestles
Sabinianus I, 18c. 450 ADHagiography
Strabon, XII, 3, 30 C 556CabiraBefore 71 BC?Geography
Talmud, Shabbat, I, 5Before 70 AD?
Two inscriptionsAntioch73/4 ADEpigraphyPossibly fulling mills
Visigothic Code, VII, 2, 12 and VIII, 4, 29–30Late 5th century ADLegal code
Vita S. Romani abbatis, 17–18c. 450 ADHagiographyWater-powered pestles
Vitruvius, X, 5.240/10 BCEngineeringEarliest description of undershot wheel mill
Vitruvius, X, 5.240/10 BCEngineeringPossible kneading machine

Graphical representations

This section deals with depictions of watermills which are preserved in ancient paintings, reliefs, mosaics, etc.
Place CountryDateType of evidenceIdentification/Remains
Coemeterium Maius at RomeItalyLate 3rd century AD?Wall painting
UticaTunisia4th century ADMosaic
Great Palace of ConstantinopleTurkeyc. 450/500 ADMosaicOne probable and one possible representation
Hierapolis sarcophagusTurkeySecond half of 3rd century ADReliefWater-powered stone sawmill; earliest known crank and connecting rod system

Archaeological finds

Watermill sites

Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the ancient period.
SiteCountryDateIdentification/Remains
Mouzaïa des Mines, nearAlgeriaUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
Oued Bou ArdounAlgeriaPossibly 2nd to 3rd century ADUnspecified remains
Oued Bou Ya'koubAlgeriaUnspecifiedDrop-tower mill
Oued MellahAlgeriaPossibly 4th century ADDrop-tower mill
Ardleigh, Spring Valley MillEnglandUnspecifiedPossible Roman watermill site including millstones
ChestersEnglandPossibly 3rd century ADMill-race, mill-chamber, tail-race, millstones
FullertonEnglandUnspecifiedTwo watermills
Haltwhistle Burn HeadEngland225–70 ADEntire establishment
Ickham IEngland150–280 ADMill-race, mill-building, fragments of millstones
Ickham IIEngland3rd and 4th centuries ADMill-race, sluice-gate, mill-building, fragments of millstones
NettletonEngland230 ADMill-race, sluice-gate, wheel-pit, tail-race
WherwellEnglandLate 3rd or early 4th century ADMill-channel, mill-building, fragments of millstones
WillowfordEnglandLate 2nd or 3rd century AD?Water-channels, sluices, fragments of millstones
Barbegal millFrance2nd century ADMultiple mill complex with sixteen overshot wheels on two mill-races, fed by aqueduct
Fontvieille, Calade du CastelletFrance5th/6th century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
GannesFrancePresumably 4th or 5th century ADHorizontal water-wheel
La CrauFrance2nd century ADVertical-wheeled mill
La Garde FranceUnspecifiedVertical-wheeled mill
LattesFranceUnspecifiedUnspecified
Le Cannet-des-MauresFrance5th century ADTwo horizontal-wheeled mills
Les Arcs France2nd/3rd century ADVertical-wheeled mill
Les Martres-de-Veyre IFrance1st century ADUnspecified remains
Les Martres-de-Veyre IIFranceLate 2nd century ADEntire establishment; breastshot wheel
Lyon-VaiseFranceLate 1st century AD abandonedMillstones, mill-chamber timbers
Paulhan I–IIIFrance40/50–early 3rd century ADThree consecutive mills
PézenasFrance2nd century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
TaradeauFranceLate 2nd–4th century ADHorizontal-wheeled mill
BobingenGermany117/138 ADPosts, boards, mill-race
IndenGermanyEnd of 1st century BCMillstones, wheel-shaft bearings, paddle fragments
Lösnich IGermany2nd/4th century AD?Mill-race, wheel-pit, fragment of a millstone
Lösnich IIGermany2nd/4th century AD?Mill-race
Munich-PerlachGermanyEnd of 2nd century ADMill-chamber, mill-race, millstone fragments; possibly duplex drive
Athens, Agora IGreece5th and 6th centuries ADAqueduct, wheel-pit, mill-chamber, tail-race
Athens, Agora IIGreece460/75 to c.580 ADEntire establishment
Athens, Agora IIIGreeceUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
El-QabuIsraelPossibly RomanUnspecified remains
En ShoqeqIsrael2nd century ADMasonry dam with mills
Farod I–IIIIsrael5th or 6th century ADThree drop-tower mills
Farod IV–VIsraelUnspecifiedTwo mills
Ma'agan MichaelIsrael3rd century AD?Masonry dam, with eleven mills
Nahal TanninimIsraelEarly 4th/mid-7th century ADSix vertical-wheeled mills with duplex drives and underdriven Pompeian millstones
Wadi Fejjas I–IIIIsraelProbably RomanThree drop-tower mills
Wadi SerrarIsraelProbably RomanUnspecified remains
YarkonIsrael2nd century ADUnspecified remains
OderzoItaly2nd century ADMill-race
Rome, Baths of Caracalla IItalyBetween 212/235 to mid-3rd century ADTwo vertical-wheeled mills
Rome, Baths of Caracalla IIItalyMid-3rd century to 5th century ADTwo vertical-wheeled mills
Rome, JaniculumItalyEarly 3rd century ADAqueducts, reservoirs, sluices, millstones
SaepinumItalyLate 3rd or early 4th century ADAqueduct, sluice-gates, wheel-pit, tail-race. Recently identified as tanning mill.
San Giovanni di RuotiItalyEarly 1st century ADUnspecified remains
VenafroItalyPossibly early EmpireUndershot water wheel, millstones
GerasaJordan6th century ADWater-powered stone sawmill with two four-bladed saws; crank and connecting rod system without gear train
Wadi al-HasaJordanProbably late RomanAt least nineteen possible drop-tower mills
Oued es SoueïrMoroccoUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
AvenchesSwitzerland57/58–80 ADMill-race timbers
Rodersdorf, Klein BüelSwitzerland1st century ADMillstone, mill-race
PalmyraSyriaPossibly RomanUnspecified remains
ChemtouTunisiaLate 3rd or early 4th century ADTriple helix turbine mill with horizontal wheels
TestourTunisiaLate 3rd or early 4th century ADTriple helix turbine mill with horizontal wheels
ColossaeTurkeyUnspecifiedPossible multiple-mill complex
Kurşunlu Waterfall, near PergeTurkeyUnspecifiedUnspecified remains
Lamus riverTurkeyApparently late antiqueSeven horizontal-wheeled mills

Millstones

The following list comprises stray finds of ancient millstones. Note that there is no way to distinguish millstones driven by water-power from those powered by animals turning a capstan. Most, however, are assumed to derive from watermills.
SiteCountryDate Remains
Barton Court FarmEngland4th century AD wellFragments of four millstones
ChedworthEnglandRoman villaOne lower stone, fragment of another
Chew ParkEnglandLate 3rd or early 4th century ADOne complete upper stone, part of another
Dicket MeadEnglandRoman buildingFragments of millstones
LeedsEnglandRoman pottery dated to 1st and 2nd centuries ADFragment of millstone
Littlecote Roman VillaEngland2nd century AD timber buildingFragment of millstone
LondonEngland1st-2nd century ADSeveral millstones
LondonEnglandLate 2nd century AD Roman shipOne unfinished millstone
SelseyEnglandUnspecifiedFragment of millstone
VindolandaEnglandPossibly RomanFour millstones
WantageEnglandOn display in museumTwo millstones
WoolastonEnglandc. 320 ADTwo upper millstones
La Chapelle-TaillefertFrancePottery and coins from 2nd century ADPair of millstones
LyonFranceOn display in museumMany unpublished millstones
ParisFranceOn display in museumSix millstones
AalenGermanyOn display in museumFive millstones
CologneGermanyOn display in museumThree millstones
DasingGermanyUnspecifiedFragments of millstones
KoblenzGermanyOn display in museumSeveral millstones
MayenGermanyQuarryUnfinished Roman millstones
BudapestHungaryOn display in museumSix millstones
Beit She'anIsraelLate 4th or early 5th century ADUpper millstone
BuqueiahIsraelAllegedly from ancient watermillUpper millstone
BolognaItalyOn display in museumSix millstones
NaplesItalyProbably RomanSeveral millstones
Palatine, RomeItaly4th or 5th century AD47 millstones from at least five watermills
ApulumRomania2nd or 3rd century ADPair of millstones
Cluj-NapocaRomania2nd or 3rd century ADUpper millstone
MiciaRomania2nd or 3rd century ADPair of millstones
CaerwentWalesSmithyMillstones
WhittonWalesUnspecifiedFragment of millstone

Water wheels and other components

Although more rare than the massive millstones, finds of wooden and iron parts of the mill machinery can also point to the existence of ancient watermills. Large stone mortars have been found at many mines; their deformations suggest automated crushing mills worked by water wheels.
SiteCountryDate Remains
Great ChesterfordEnglandEarly 5th century AD hoardIron spindle with three winged rynds
SilchesterEnglandMid-4th century AD hoardIron spindle
Saint-DoulchardFrance1/10 to c.50 ADPaddles, mill-chamber posts
ConimbrigaPortugalOn display in museum, allegedly 1st century ADMill-wheel
HagendornSwitzerlandLate 2nd century ADThree undershot wheels
DolaucothiWales1st and 2nd centuries ADStone anvil nearby