Kwa languages


The Kwa languages, often specified as New Kwa, are a proposed but as-yet-undemonstrated family of languages spoken in the south-eastern part of Ivory Coast, across southern Ghana, and in central Togo. The name was introduced 1895 by Gottlob Krause and derives from the word for 'people' in many of these languages, as illustrated by Akan names.

Languages

See the box at right for a current classification.
The various clusters of languages included in Kwa are at best distantly related, and it has not been demonstrated that they are closer to each other than to neighboring Niger–Congo languages.
Stewart distinguished the following major branches, which historical-comparative analysis supports as valid groups:
The Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast are not particularly close to any of these, nor to each other, so they are left ungrouped:
An Esuma language, extinct ca. 1800, remains unclassified.
Since Stewart, Ega has been tentatively removed, the Gbe languages reassigned to Volta–Niger, and Apro added. Some of the Na-Togo and Ka-Togo languages have been placed into separate branches of Kwa. See the infobox at right for the resulting branches.
Ethnologue divides the Kwa languages into two broad geographical groupings: Nyo and Left bank, but this is not a genealogical classification. The Nyo group collapses Stewart's Potou–Tano and Ga–Dangme branches and also includes the ungrouped languages of southern Ivory Coast, while the Ka/Na-Togo and Gbe languages are called Left bank because they are spoken to the east of the Volta River.

History of the proposal

The word 'Kwa' was introduced by Gottlob Krause in 1885 for the Akan, Gã, and Gbe languages, which have kwa or kua as their word for 'human being'. Since then the proposal has been dramatically expanded, only to revert to something approaching its initial conception.
In 1952 Westermann and Bryan expanded Kwa to the various Lagoon languages of southern Ivory Coast and to what are now called the Volta–Niger languages of southern Nigeria. Greenberg added the Kru languages of Liberia, the Ghana–Togo Mountain languages which Westermann and Bryan had specifically excluded, and Ijaw of the Niger delta; West Kwa included the languages from Liberia to Dahomey, and East Kwa the languages of Nigeria. Bennett & Sterk proposed that the Yoruboid and Igboid languages belonged in Benue–Congo rather than in Kwa. Stewart removed Kru, Ijaw, and Volta–Niger, but kept the Ghana–Togo Mountain and Lagoon languages, as well as adding a few obscure, newly described languages. Stewart's classification is the basis of more recent conceptions. In order to disambiguate this from Greenberg's influential classification, the reduced family is sometimes called "New Kwa".

Comparative vocabulary

Sample basic vocabulary of Kwa and related languages from Dumestre and other sources:
ClassificationLanguageeyeeartoothtonguemouthbloodbonetreewater
Ghana-TogoProto-Central Togo*ki-nu-bí /bi-*ku-túe /a-*li-nía /a-; *li-lúma /a-*ki-níé-bí /bi-*ka-niána /ku-; *o- núí /i-*li-kúpá /a-*ku-wyéu /a-*n-tû
Potou-TanoProto-Guang*kω-sω*kɔ-nɔ̃*ŋ-kalωŋ*o-yi*ɲ-ču
Potou-TanoBaouléɲimasuɟetaama, tãflãnwãmoɟaoɥjewaken̥zɥe
Potou-TanoEbriém̥mɛ-ɓin̥ɟɛn̥nɔallɛm̥mɛn̥kan̥eʔweajan̥du
Potou-TanoKrobouɲɛ-bisun̥ɲɛdandren̥nɔ̃n̥krãm̥rɔɲamɛn̥zɔ
Potou-TanoAboureɛɲɛɔwɔn̥ɲɛnãnɛɔblɔn̥nlaeboɛ̃eliben̥tʃwɛ
Potou-TanoEotileɛjimaɔhoannaannɛãton̥nan̥tɔwuedwɔn̥su
Potou-TanoMbattoõɲɛ̃muoõdʒoɔ̃nɔ̃gõolɛẽmẽõglɔ̃õtʃɥiojokuõdu
LagoonAdioukrouɲamalɔrunɛnanmnɛɲmeblluwl-ikŋmidʒ
LagoonAbbeyaɛ̃mɔ̃rɔkɔejilɛtɛejimbum̥pjesfjetimidʒi
LagoonAttiehimbɛtehɛ̃nũmɛvø̃fedzakwɛsø
LagoonAlladianɛrɛnukun̥ɲiɛwɛ̃ɛmwãn̥krɛn̥wiɛtɛn̥ʃi
LagoonAvikameŋwaɓaɛzjɛɓaɛɲrãazraɓaenɔ̃ɛvɛ̃ɛwuezibaɛsɔ̃
LagoonAbidjinɔnɔwɛrɛteɛɲiinenimitim̥bwoluvutʰimindi
KruAizizrolokɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekrakenrɪ̃
EgaEgaefí /eelowá /a-ɛnʊmà /a-eno /i-ɔ̀mààsɔ̀ìkùote /a-aɗú
PerePerejísì-kéénɛ́ɛ́ɲòŋòmùjèŋgéyúgúɲààmúkóógbèè-tííⁿtúmú
MpraMpraanisiatenchumanchumueyiankaw; nkwõ
DompoDomponyisisepenyìdandulokanunklawuuyinsu
GbeProto-Gbe*-tó*aɖú*-ɖɛ́*-ɖũ; *-ɖũkpá*-ʁʷũ*-χʷú*-tĩ́*-tsĩ

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
ClassificationLanguage12345678910
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangboólèɔ́βàɔ́tàónéót͡ʃùóɡlòɡlóelèɡɔ́tɔ́βàɡɔ́tólélíɔfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo olíɛbʰaɛtáɛlɛ́itíholoɡeneansɛʒitakɛfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo oliéɛbʰaɛtaéɛlɛetiéholōɡěneéansɛʒitaékɛfɔ
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo olíɛbʰaɛtáẽlɛitíholōɡénéasuɛ̄ʒitákɛfɔ̄
Left Bank, Avatime-Nyangbo olíɪbʰaɪtáĩlĩ́itíholōɡénéasʊīʒitákífɔ̄
Left Bank, Gbeèɖéèvèètɔ̃ènèàtɔ̃àdẽ́adrẽ́èɲíaʃíekéèwó
Left Bank, Gbeɖok͡poàwèàtɔ̃̂ènɛ̀àtɔ̃́aɲizɛ̃tsĩ́ã̀wè tsĩ́ã̀tɔ̃̂ tsĩ́ɛ̀nɛ̀ emewó
Left Bank, Gbeɑ̀ɖé / ɖók͡póòwêɑ̀tɔ̃̂ɛ̀nɛ̃̂ɑ̀tṹɑ̀dɛ̃́ɑ̀tʃówê ɑ̀tɾótɔ̃̂ ɑ̀tʃɛ̃́nɛ̃̂ òwō
Left Bank, Gbeɖekavetɔnnetɔ́ndéndlénnyíasiɖeka ?wo
Left Bank, Gbelók͡póɔ̀wèɔ̀tɔ̃̀ɛ̀nɛ̀àtɔ̃́àtroók͡pó àcówèàtsítɔ̃̀àtsíɛ̀ɔ̀síɔsí
Left Bank, Gbeòɖěōwèōtɔ̃̀ēnɛ̀àtɔ̃̄ɔ̃̄ātrók͡pōācíòwèàtĩ́tɔ̃̀àcíɛ̀nɛ̀ōwóé
Left Bank, Gbe, Ajaeɖé / ɖekaèvè / amɛ̃veetɔ̃̂ / amɛ̃tɔ̃enɛ̀ / amɛ̃nɛ̃atɔ̃ / amãtɔ̃adɛ̃ / amãdɛ̃adɾɛ / amãdɾɛeɲĩ / amɛ̃ɲĩɲíɖe / aʃiɖekɛ / amãʃíɖekɛ ewó
Left Bank, Gbe, Ajaòɖè / ɖòk͡póàweàtɔnɛnɛ̀nàtɔ́nt͡ʃíɖòk͡pó t͡ʃiánwè t͡ʃíantɔ̀n t͡ʃíɛ́nnɛ̀n àwò
Left Bank, Gbe, Fonɖěweatɔnɛnɛatɔ́ɔ́nayizɛ́ntɛ́nwe tántɔn tɛ́nnɛ wǒ
Left Bank, Gbe, Fonɖèéòwèɔ̀tɔ̃̀ɛ̀nɛ̀àtɔ̃́ayizɛ̃tɛ́ɛwè tã́tɔ̃̀ tɛ̃ɛ̃nɛ̀ òwó
Left Bank, Gbe, Minaèɖěèvèētɔ̃̀ēnɛ̀àtɔ̃́ɔ̃ādɛ̃́ǎdrɛ̃́ēɲíēɲíɖé ēwó
Left Bank, Kebu-Animere ʈɛ́ìjítānìə̀ə̀tʊ̄ʊ̀kʊ̀rã̀ŋpīrìmātānɛ̀ĩ̀ŋfã̀ŋt͡ʃẽ̄ŋt͡ʃẽ̄ŋtə̀
Left Bank, Kebu-Animere dɛiyitaːniətuwturaŋprimatanɛŋfant͡ʃet͡ʃeŋ ?tə
Left Bank, Kebu-Animerebɛɹidintʰaaɳeatʰuŋakʰuɹuŋɳotʰaɳoɳafʊɳetʰi
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowiliiliìwàìtãàlã̀ùtɔuɡoùzòniùmàlàúkàliɔ̀wú
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowiliɛ̀dɪɛ̀fʷàɛ̀laɛ̀naɛ̀tʊɛ̀wlʊɛ̀wlʊdɪ ?ɛ̀lɛɛ̀lɛdɪ ?ìd͡ʒo
Left Bank, Kposo-Ahlo-Bowilikédìkɛ́ɛ́yákààlɛ̀kɛ́ɛ́nákùùlókévũ̀kɛ́kɔ̀nɔ̀kɛ̀ɛ̀lɛ̃̀kàvèdí ?kùwà
Nyo, Agnebyŋ̀k͡pɔ̄āɲʊ̃́āɾíàlɛ́ōnílɔ̀hɔ̃̀lɔ̀hʍ̃ã̄ɾíèpʲèɲāàkóǹnɛ̀
Nyo, Agnebyń̩nɔ̀áānʊ̄ɛ̃́ɛ̃̄tɪ̄ã́ã̄lāéēnēnáhʊ̃̀ã̀nɔ̃́ᵐbʊ̀nówònɛ̃́ᵐbrɛ̀ń̩díɔ̀
Nyo, Agnebyɲâmɲóɲɲâhǹjârjênnɔ̂hǹlɔ́bŋ̀níwǹlíbárm̀lɛ̂w
Nyo, Attieèkkɛ́mwʌ̃́kɛ́hã́kɛ́dʒíkɛ̋bʌ̃́kɛ̋mũ̄n̩sőmɔ̃̀kɥɛ́ŋ̩ɡʷãkɛ̃̋ŋ
Nyo, Attieékòmééɲɔ̀étɛ̃éɟwɛ̀énùmɔ̃ék͡pàak͡pàwo ?k͡pàaɲɔ̃ ?nɛ̀ɛhṹɲɔ̀ŋmá
Nyo, Ga-Dangmekákēéɲɔ̃̀étɛ̃̄éywɛ̀ / éwìɛ̀énũ̄ɔ̃̄ék͡pàk͡pààɡō ?k͡pàaɲɔ̃̄ ?nɛ̃̀ɛ̃́ɲɔ̃̀ŋ͡mã́
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Basila-Adeleɛ̀kíɛ̀nyɔ̀ɔ̀nàsìɛ̀nààtònkòòrònkɔ̀rɔ̀nkí ?nìyɛ̀yɛ̀kí ?fò
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Basila-Adeledɨ̄ŋ, ɡādɨ̄ŋ, ɡīdɨ̄ŋ, ɡūdɨ̄ŋīɲīʊ̄, bʊ̄ɲīʊ̄, bāɲīʊ̄,īrīū, īrīū, īrīūīnāŋ, īnāŋ, īnāŋīnʊ̄ŋ, īnʊ̄ŋ, īnʊ̄ŋīkōlōŋ, īkōlōŋ, īkōlōŋkūlūmīɡánáánátʃīīnītɘ̄b
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Lelemi-Akpafuùnwìíɲɔ́ɛ̀tɛ̀ínɛ́ɛ̀lɔ́ɛ̀kúmáátɛ̀ ?máánɛ́ ?lɛ́yàlìnwì ?lèèvù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Lelemi-Akpafuɔ̀wɛ̃̂íɲɔ̂ìtɛ́ínâírùíkùɔ̀ìkɔ́dzɛ̂ ?fàráfánà ?káiwɛ̃̂ ?ìwéó
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofi nʊ̀ɛ́ núə̀ǹtsyə́ńnàǹnɔ́ǹkùákùánsèyènínàsélèfòsì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofi nùɛ́núə̀ǹtsyə́ǹnáǹnɔ́ǹkúakúansèyènínàsélèfósì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Lelemi, Likpe-Santrokofiònwíìɔ̀ɲɔ́òtìɛ́ɔ́nàɔ̀nɔ́ɔ̀òkúɔ́kùɛ́nsĩ́ɔ̀nɛ́nàásĩ́lèfósì
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Logba ik͡pɛinyɔitainainúiɡlóɡlaŋk͡pemlamináɡɔkwaɖuuɖú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Logba ik͡pɛiɲɔitainainúiɡlóɡlaŋk͡pemlamináɡɔkwaɖuuɖú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akanbaakó̃mienumiensánainnumnsiãnsɔŋɔt͡ʃwieŋkrɔŋdu
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akan baakó~ə̀bìéńə̀bìèsá~ànáńə̀núḿə̀sìá~ə̀sɔ́ńàwòtɕɥé /tw/àkróńdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Akan baakó̃mmienúmmeɛnsã́náńnúḿnsĩã́nsóńnwɔtwénkróńdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northernkũɲ̀ɲɔ̀ǹzã̀ǹnáǹnúǹʒɛ̃́ǹzômɔ̀cᵘɛ́ŋ̀ɡɔ̀nábúɾú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northernɛ̀kʊ̃ / kʊ̃ ɲɲṹãnsɑ̃nnɑ̃́nnṹnsĩ́ã́nsʊ̂mɔcuɛ́ŋɡʊ̃ɑ̃lɑ̃́búlú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northernkùnǹɲɔ̀nǹsànǹnánǹnúnǹsiɛ́nǹsôǹmɔ̀cuɛ́ǹɡwlànblú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Northernkʊ̃̀ɲɔ̀ǹzã̀ǹnáǹnúǹziã́ǹzɔ́ːmɔ̀tʃwɛ́ǹɡɔ̃̀lã̀bʊ́lʊ́
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southernɔ̀kʊ́nàɥɪ̀nàsànànlàə̀nlùə̀ʃiə̀ə̀súŋwààwɔ̀twɛ̀àhɔ́nlàbùnlù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southernɛ̀kʊ̃ / kʊ̃ ɲ́ɲʊ̃ ńsɑ̃ńnɑ̃ńnṹńsĩ́ãńsṹũmɔ́cʊɛŋɡʊ̃lɑ̃́bulú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Central, Bia, Southernkońwiańsańnańnuńsiãńsuwmɔ́twɛnɡhoaláeburú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangkɔ́ɪ̀ɲɔ́ɪ̀sáɪ̀náɪ̀núːìsíyéìsúnóːìbùrùwáɪ̀kpánɔ́ːkúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangkɔ́ɔ́aɲóasáanáanúasíéasʊ́nɔat͡ʃwéak͡pɔ́nɔídú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangǹkɔ́ /ɔkʊlamǹɲʸɔ́ǹsáǹnáàŋǹnṹũ̀ / ǹnúŋǹséèǹsínōdùkwéè / dùkoiǹk͡pánɔ̀dúdu
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangokouiɡnoissainainounissisonoɡuikoesonʔouɡuidou
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangà-kôà-ɲɔ́à-sáà-náà-núà-ʃéà-ʃúnùà-bùrùwáà-k͡pánàkùdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangkɔ̃ / ɛkʊ́nkɔ́áɲɔasaanáɛnʊ́eséɛsʊ́nʊ́ɛkwéapʊ́nɔ́ídú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangkɔ́ɔ́aɲɔ́asáanáɛnʊ̂ɛsíɛ́asʊ́nɔ́kukwéak͡pʊ́nɔ́kúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangkʊ́ːʔaɲɔ́asáanáanûasíjéasúnɔ̂abᵘɾuwáakpʌ́nɔ̂ɡúdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, North Guangɛ̀-kʊ̃̀ / ɪ̀-kʊ̀lɛ̀à-ɲɔ̀à-sàà-nàà-nùà-sìèà-sìènɔ́ɪ̀-kʷèɪ̀-kʷèbáɪ̀-dú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guangkòméìɲɔ́èsã́ènaː́ ̀ènúìsɛ̃́ː ̀ìsɔ̃́itʃwéɛ̀pánìdù
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guangàkʊ́ìɲɔ́ìsã́ìnɛ̂ìnîìsíɛ̃̀ìsúnɔ̋ìtwîìk͡púnɔ̋ìdû
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guangákònyɔ́sã́nɛ̃̀nĩ́sĩ̀ɛ̀sùnɔ̃́twík͡plɔ̃́ìdú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang kɔ́ɲyɔ́sánɛ́núsíɛ̀súnɔ́tɕɥík͡pʋ́nɔ́dú
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Guang, South Guang kõɲɔ̃sãnɛ̃nũsĩɛ̃sũnɔ̃cuik͡plɔ̃du
Nyo, Potou-Tano, Tano, Westernokuèaɲùnɳànnànnnúncɪɛ̀ncʋ̀nmɔ̀kʋ̀ɛ́puálɛ́hʋ̀nóblún

Footnotes

Notations