Kru languages


The Kru languages belong to the Niger–Congo language family and are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the east of Ivory Coast.

Etymology

The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann it was used by Europeans to denote a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited as "crew" by European seafarers; "the homonymy with crew is obvious, and is at least one source of the confusion among Europeans that there was a Kru/crew tribe".

Classification

Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their position at the crossroads of African-European interaction. He wrote that "Kru and associated languages were among the first to be encountered by European voyagers on what was then known as the Pepper Coast, a centre of the production and export of Guinea and melegueta pepper; a once staple African seaborne trade". The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems in Africa, rivaled perhaps only by the Omotic languages.

Current status

Recent documentation has noted "Kru societies can now be found along the coast of Monrovia, Liberia to Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire". "Villages maintain their ties based on presumed common descent, reinforced by ceremonial exchanges and gifts". The Kru people and their languages, although now many speak English or French as a second language, are said to be "dominant in the southwest region where the forest zone reaches the coastal lagoons". The Kru people rely on the forest for farming, supplemented by hunting for their livelihood. In 2010, Kru and associated languages were spoken by 95 percent of the approximately 3.5 million people in Liberia.

Subgroups and associated languages

The Kru languages include many subgroups such as Kuwaa, Grebo, Bassa, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa and many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity, and socio-political autonomy "may have brought about the large number of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were in many respects similar in type and tribe, every village was an independent state; there was also very little intercommunication". Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, separate historical or ethnic identities, and social and political autonomy. This is the possible reason for so many subgroups of the Kru language. As noted by Fisiak, there is very little documentation on the Kru and associated languages.
Marchese's classification of Kru languages is as follows. Many of these languages are dialect clusters and are sometimes considered more than a single language.
Ethnologue adds Neyo, which may be closest to Dida or Godie.

Grammar

Kru word order is primarily subject-verb-object, but can also often be subject-object-verb.

Comparative vocabulary

Sample basic vocabulary of 12 Kru languages from Marchese :
Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonetreewatereatname
Tepojíênω̂âmɪ̂jã́ɲɛ́mɛ̂wũ̂tdâblώklátûgbɛ̀nîjẽ́dîdώ
Jrweɟrónω̃̂ã̂mɪ̃̂ã̂ɲɛ̃́mɛ̃̂wṹklώω̂klátúwɛ̀nĩ́ẽ́dîdɛ̂ɲɔ̃́
Guereɟrííēdōṹmlâɲnɪ̃̂ɛ̄̃mē̃õ̀ŋɔ̄̃ɲmɔ̄̃kpâtūnídîɛ̄ɲnɪ̃̂
Wobéɟríɛ́dōṹmlã̂ɲnə̃̂mɛ̄̃õ̀ŋʷɔ̄̃nmɔ̄kpâtūnĩ́dīɲnẽ̂
Niabouaɟîrîlòkûmánáɲéɲéméɛ̃̀ŋʷɔ̄̃ɲēmōkpátūnîdīɲéɲé
Bété ɟijûkûlîmlə̂gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋōdrúkwâsūɲûlíŋʉ̂nɪ̂
Bété jirijúkwɨ́límə́ɲə́gʌ̂lʌ̂mɪ̄ɔ̄nûə̂dûrûkwásûɲúdīŋʉ́ɲɪ́
Néyojɪ́ɲúkwlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄nédòlūféēsūúɲúlījlɪ́
Godiéjɨdíɲūkúlúmə́ɲə́gə̄lèmɪ̄ɔ̄nə̄drùféèsūɲúɗɨ̄ŋʉ́nʉ́
Koyojɪjēɲúkiwí—glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́dòlúféjēsūúɲúlɨ̄ŋɨ́nɨ́
Didacíɲúkwlímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄dólūkwíjèsūɲúlîŋlɪ́
Aïzizrelωkɔmωvɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekrakenrɪli—

An additional sample basic vocabulary of 21 Kru languages from Marchese :
Languageeyeearnosetoothtonguemouthbloodbonewatereatname
Aïzizrelωkɔmωvɔɲɪmrɔmuɲrekranrɪli
Vatajéɲêflúmênêglàmeɔ̄nɪ̄dūlūfâɲúlî
Didacíɲúkwlímnéglāmɪ̄ɔ̄nɪ̄dòlūkwíjèɲúlîŋlɪ́
Koyojíjēɲúkwlíŋʉ́nʉ́glàmɪ̄ɔ̄nə́dòlúféjēɲúlɨ̄ŋɨ́nɨ́
Godiéɲūkúlúmə́ňə́gə̀lèmɪ̄ɔ̄nə̄dřùféèɲúɗɨ̄ŋʉ́nʉ́
Néyojɪ́ɲúkwlímléglèmɪ̄ɔ̄nédòlūféēɲúlījlɪ́
Bété jiřijúkwɨ́límə́ňə́gʌ̂lâmɪ̄ɔ̄nûə̂dûřûkwáɲúlīnʉ́nɪ́
Bété ɟijûkûlîmlə̂gléímɪ́ɔ́ŋōdřúkwâɲúlínʉ̀nɪ̂
Niaboualòkûmə́náɲénéméɛ̃̀ŋwɔ̃̄ɲēmōkpánîdīɲéné
Wobéɟríɛ́dōṹmlã̂ɲnẽ̂mɛ̄ɔ̃̀ŋwɔ̃̄nmɔ̄kpânĩ́dīɲnẽ̂
Guéréɟrííēdōṹmlâɲnɪ̃̂ẽ̄mẽ̄õ̀ŋɔ̃̄ɲmɔ̃̄kpânídìɛ̄ɲnɪ̃̂
Konobojidɔnaomlãmɛdaluoklaɲɛdiɲi
Oubijīrōnōāmēã̄ŋudòùlākalaɲɛ́dīdɛ̄ɲírṍ
Bakweɲʉ́ɲákúlúmňṍglɛ̀mɛ̄mʌ́tùřúkɔ̄ōnēɟɨnrɪ
Tépojíênω̂âmɪ̂jã́ɲɛ́mɛ́dâblώklánîjẽ́dîdώ
Grebojênóáméámɛ̄ŋwúnɔ̄ɲénɔ́klã́nĩ́díɲéné
Klaoɟínɔ̄kũ̀mnã́mɛ̄wɔ̃̄ɲnɔ̄kpã́nĩ́dīɲnɛ̃́
Bassaɟélémánámɔwɔ̃̄nɔmɔkpádunuɗiɲɛnɛ
Dewoingiremálã́mīlã̀wɔ̃̄ĩ́ɲimogbanízīŋɛ́lɛ́
Kuwaasĩ̌nɔiɲũmɛ̀wũwɔ̃̀tòyòkwanímíɟìɲɛlɛ̃
Sɛmɛɲatasjẽmarɲendɛkõtõkparnũdijĩ

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
ClassificationLanguage12345678910
Kuwaadeesɔ̃rtãã̀ɲìjɛ̀hɛwàyɔ̀ɔwɔ̀rfɔlɛ̀ kɔrlɔrɔ̃r kwatãã̀ kɔ̃yĩ̀yɛ̀hɛ kowaa
Seme byẽ́ẽnĩ́ĩ̄tyáāryūrkwɛ̃̄lkpã̄âkĩ̄îkprɛ̄n̂kɛ̄lfú
Seme dyuɔ̃15nĩ15tyɛr15yur3kwɛ̃l3k͡pa4a34kyi4ĩ34k͡prɛ4ɛ̃34kal3fu1
Eastern, Bakweɗôːsɔ̂ːtʌ̄ːmɾɔ̄ːɡ͡bə̀ə̄ŋǔːɗō ŋǔːsɔ̄ ŋǔːtʌ̄ ŋǔːmɾɔ̄ pʊ̀
Eastern, Bakwedo³ / ɗo³sɔ²ta³ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ŋʷũ⁴²ŋʷũ⁴² kloː²⁴ŋʷũ⁴² sɔ² ŋʷũ⁴² ta³ ŋʷũ⁴² ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ ŋʷũ⁴² bu⁴ or bu⁴
Eastern, Beteɓlʊ̄sɔ̋támʊ̄wanaŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ ɡ͡bʊ̀wata ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, Beteɓlʊ̄sɔ̋támʊ̄wanaŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ ɡ͡bʊ̀wata ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, Beteɓlōōsɔ́ɔ́tāāŋ̀mɔ̀ɔ̀nāŋ̀ɡ͡bɨ́ŋ̀ɡ͡bóplóo ŋ̀ɡ͡bɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ ŋ̀ɡ͡bàátā ŋ̀vɔ̀ɔ̀nākʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, Bete, Easternɓɵ̯̀ɺōsɔ̋tɑ̄mɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̄ŋ͡m̩̄.ɡ͡búɡ͡bé.pó̯ɺó ɡ͡bɔ́ɔ́.sɔ̋ ɡ͡bɔ̋ɔ́.tā fɛ̀ɛ̀.nɔ̄kō.ɡ͡bɔ́
Eastern, Bete, Easternɡ͡bɔlɔ².³so⁴ta³¹mɔna¹.³¹mŋɡ͡be²mŋɡ͡beɡ͡bɔlɔ².².³ mŋɡ͡boso³.⁴ mŋɡ͡bata³.³¹ mŋɡ͡bɔfɛna³.¹.³¹ kɔɡ͡ba².³
Eastern, Bete, Easternɓlòsɔ́tāmnʊ̀àɡ͡buɡ͡beliɓlò ɡ͡besɔ́ ɡ͡betā ɡ͡bomnʊ̀à kuɡ͡bua
Eastern, Didabólómwɔsɔ́mwɔtámwɔnáɛŋɡ͡bɪ́ɛŋɡ͡bʊ́frɔ ɛmɓɔ́sɔ́ ɛmɓáta ɛmvwanákóɡ͡ba
Eastern, Didaɓɔ̄lósɔ́tāāmɔ̀nāɡ͡bɪ́ɡ͡bɪ́flɔ́ ɡ͡básɔ́ ɡ͡bátā fɛ̄nā kʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, Kwadiaɡ͡bɤlɤ³² / ɓɤlɤ³²sɔː²taː²mɔna⁴³ⁿɡ͡bɤ³ⁿɡ͡bɤwlɤ³³³ ⁿɡ͡bɔː⁴³sɔ³ ⁿɡ͡baː⁴³ta³ ⁿɡ͡bɤmɔna³⁴³ kʊɡ͡ba³³
Western, Bassaɖò, dyúáɖòsɔ̃́tãhĩinyɛhm̀m̌mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-ɖò mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-sɔ̃́ mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-tã mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-hĩinyɛ ɓaɖa-bùè
Western, Bassaɡ͡bǒsɔ̃́tahĩinyɛhm̀m̌meɖe-ɡ͡bǒ meɖe-sɔ̃́ meɖe-ta meɖe-hĩinyɛ vù
Western, Bassa dɔ̀ː / ɗɔ̀káⁱsɔ̃́tãɲ̀yɛ̃m̀ḿm̀mɽědɔ̀ m̀mɽěsɔ̃́ m̀mɽětã́ m̀mɽěɲ̀yɛ̃ báɽápʰùwe
Western, Bassa dòò, dyúáɖòsɔ̃́tãhĩ̀nyɛhm̀m̀mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-ɖò mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-sɔ̃́ mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-tə̃ mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-hĩ̀nyɛ ɓaɖabùè
Western, Grebo, Glio-Oubidōhwə̃tã́hə̃ɡ͡bə̀hṹdò hũ̀sɔ́ mɛra mɛ́ɲɛ̀ pue
Western, Grebo, Ivoriandòhʋɛ̃́tāhɛ̃̀hũ̌hũ̀jārō hũ̀jāhʋɛ̃́ hũ̀jātā hũ̀jāhɛ̃̀ pù
Western, Grebo, Ivorian dòhɔ̃́tāhɛ̃̀hũ̌huõ̀nɔ̀ nɪ́pātā nɪ́pāhɔ̃́, yèhɛ̃̀yèhɛ̃̀ sēlédò pù
Western, Grebo, Ivorian dôɔ̄ɛ́ntāhɛ̀nùmùmnɔ̄dô ùmnɔ̄ɔ̄ɛ́n blɛ̄nbìɛ̀nùmīyándōpù
Western, Grebo, Liberiandòoɔ̌ntaanhɛ̃ɛnwùunwùnɔ̀dǒ jetan ?jiinhɛ̀n ?sǒndò fù
Western, Grebo, Liberiandosɔ̃̌tãhɛ̃̀m̀mmmɔ̀do nyiɛtã nnyɛɛ siědo pù
Western, Klaodôsɔ́ntannyìɛ̀mùmùnéɛ́do mùnéɛ́sɔ́n mùnéɛtan sopádo puè
Western, Klaodoesunn nn = ?tanhinhoomḿhon doe ḿhon sunn hinin siɛrdoe punn
Western, Wee, Guere-Krahntòòsɔɔ̌nta̓a̓nnyìɛ̓m̀m̌mɛ̀o̓ mɛ̀sɔɔ̌n mɛta̓a̓ǹ mɛ̀nyìɛ̓ pùèè
Western, Wee, Guere-Krahnduě / tòòsɔntannyìɛm̀m̌mɛ̀lǒ mɛ̀sɔn mɛ̌tan mɛ̌nyiɛ pùè
Western, Wee, Nyabwado4sɔ̃2tã3ɲiɛ33mu4u1mɛ4ɛ1lo4 mɛ4ɛ1sɔ̃2 mɛ4ɛ1tã3 mɛ4ɛ1ɲiɛ33 bue44
Western, Wee, Wobetoo3 / due1sɔɔn2 / sɔn2taan3nyiɛ43mm41mɛ41o3 mɛ41sɔn2 mɛ41na3 mɛ41nyiɛ3 puue3

Reconstruction

According to Marchese Zogbo, Proto-Kru had:
Proto-Kru consonants :
ptkkp
bdggb
ɓ
mnŋ
s
lw

Derived consonants:
Proto-Kru vowels :
There is a clear bipartite division between Western and Eastern Kru marked by phonological and lexical distinctions. Some isoglosses between Western Kru and Eastern Kru:
GlossProto-Western KruProto-Eastern Kru
tree*tu*su
dog*gbe*gwɪ
fire*nɛ*kosu
tooth*ɲnɪ*gle