Eskimo–Aleut languages


The Eskimo–Aleut languages, Eskaleut languages, or Inuit-Yupik-Unangan languages are a language family native to Alaska, Nunavut, northern Northwest Territories, northern Quebec, northern Labrador, Greenland and far eastern Russia. It is also known as Eskaleutian, Eskaleutic or Inuit–Yupik-Unangan.
The Eskimo–Aleut language family is divided into two branches: the Eskimo languages and the Aleut language. The Aleut branch consists of a single language, Aleut, spoken in the Aleutian Islands and the Pribilof Islands. It is divided into several dialects. The Eskimo languages are divided into two branches: the Yupik languages, spoken in western and southwestern Alaska and in Chukotka, and the Inuit languages, spoken in northern Alaska, Canada and Greenland. Inuit, which covers a huge range of territory, is divided into several varieties. Neighbouring varieties are quite similar, although those at the farthest distances from the centre in the Diomede Islands and East Greenland are quite divergent.
The proper place of one language, Sirenik, within the Eskimo family has not been settled. While some linguists list it as a branch of Yupik, others list it as a separate branch of the Eskimo family, alongside Yupik and Inuit.

History

The Alaska Native Language Center believes that the common ancestral language of the Eskimo languages and of Aleut divided into the Eskimo and Aleut branches at least 4,000 years ago. The Eskimo language family split into the Yupik and Inuit branches around 1,000 years ago.
The Eskimo–Aleut languages are among the native languages of the Americas. This is a geographical category, not a genealogical one. The Eskimo–Aleut languages are not demonstrably related to the other language families of North America and are believed to represent a separate, and the last, prehistoric migration of people from Asia.
Alexander Vovin notes that Northern Tungusic languages, which are spoken in eastern Siberia and northeastern China, have Eskimo-Aleut loanwords that are not found in Southern Tungusic, implying that Eskimo-Aleut was once much more widely spoken in eastern Siberia. Vovin estimates that the Eskimo-Aleut loanwords in Northern Tungusic had been borrowed no more than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading up north from its homeland in the middle reaches of the Amur River. Vovin considers the homeland of Proto-Eskimo-Aleut to be in Siberia rather than in Alaska.

Internal classification

Eskimo–Aleut languages

Position among the world's language families

Eskimo–Aleut does not have any genetic relationship to any of the world's other language families that is generally accepted by linguists at the present time. There is general agreement that it is not closely related to the other language families of North America. The more credible proposals on the external relations of Eskimo–Aleut all concern one or more of the language families of northern Eurasia, such as Chukotko-Kamchatkan just across the Bering Strait. One of the first such proposals, the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis, was suggested by the pioneering Danish linguist Rasmus Rask in 1818, upon noticing similarities between Greenlandic and Finnish. Perhaps the most fully developed such proposal to date is Michael Fortescue's Uralo-Siberian hypothesis, published in 1998.
More recently Joseph Greenberg suggested grouping Eskimo–Aleut with all of the language families of northern Eurasia, with the exception of Yeniseian, in a proposed language family called Eurasiatic. Such proposals are not generally accepted. Criticisms have been made stating that Greenberg's hypothesis is ahistorical, meaning that it lacks and sacrifices known historical elements of language in favour of external similarities. Although the Eurasiatic hypothesis is generally disregarded by linguists, one critique by Stefan Georg and Alexander Vovin stated that they were not willing to disregard the theory immediately although ultimately agreed that Greenberg's conclusion was dubious. Greenberg explicitly states that his developments were based on the previous macro-comparative work done by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Bomhard and Kerns. By providing evidence of lexical comparison, Greenberg hoped that it would strengthen his hypothesis.
Despite all these efforts, the Eurasiatic language theory was overruled on the basis that mass comparison is not accurate enough an approach. In comparative linguistics, the comparative method bases its validity on highly regular changes, not occasional semantic and phonological similarities, which is what the Eurasiatic hypothesis provides.
In the 1960s Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with the Wakashan languages. This was picked up and expanded by Jan Henrik Holst.

Notable features

Every word must have only one root always at the beginning. Eskimo–Aleut languages have a relatively small number of roots: in the case of Central Alaskan Yup'ik, around two thousand. Following the root are a number of postbases, which are bound morphemes that add to the basic meaning of the root. If the meaning of the postbase is to be expressed alone, a special neutral root is used.
The basic word schema is as follows: root--inflection-. Below is an example from Central Siberian Yupik.
angyagh-lla-ng-yug-tuq=lu
boat-big-acquire-want.to-indic.3s-also
‘also, he wants to acquire a big boat’

There are a total of three affixes internal to the word 'angyagh.' The root 'angyagh' and the inflection '-tuq' on the right consist of the indicative mood marker plus third person singular. The enclitic –lu ‘also’ follows the inflection.
Following the postbases are non-lexical suffixes that indicate case on nouns and person and mood on verbs. The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to Eskimo. The Eskimo languages are ergative–absolutive in nouns and in Yup'ik languages, also in verbal person marking. All Eskimo–Aleut languages have obligatory verbal agreement with agent and patient in transitive clauses, and there are special suffixes used for this purpose in subordinate clauses, which makes these languages, like most in the North Pacific, highly complement deranking.
At the end of a word there can be one of a small number of clitics with meanings such as "but" or indicating a polar question.
Phonologically, the Eskimo–Aleut languages resemble other language families of northern North America and far-eastern Siberia. There are usually only three vowels—,, —though some Yup'ik dialects also have. All Eskimo–Aleut languages lack ejectives, in which they resemble the Siberian languages more than the North American ones. Eskimo–Aleut languages possess voiceless plosives at four positions in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops. There are contrasting voiced and voiceless fricatives at the same positions, and in the Eskimo subfamily a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present. A rare feature of many dialects of Yup'ik and Aleut is contrasting voiceless nasals.

Phonology

Eskimo

The following vowels and consonants were taken from Michael Fortescue et al., 2010

Vowels

Eskimo /ə/ corresponds to Aleut /i/.
FrontCentralBack
Closeiɨu
Midə
Opena

Consonants

Inuit allows only a single initial consonant and no more than two successive consonants between vowels.
Yupik lacks the consonant assimilation process so common to Inuit.
Consonants in parentheses are non-Proto-Eskimo phonemes.

Aleut

The following vowels and consonants were taken from Knut Bergsland,.

Vowels

The Aleut language has six vowels in total: three short vowels /i/, /u/, /a/, and three long vowels /iː/, /uː/, /aː/. Orthographically, they would be spelled ii, uu, and aa. There are no diphthongs in Aleut vowels. The length of the vowel is dependent upon three characteristics: stress, surrounding consonants, and in particularly Eastern Aleut, surrounding vowels. Short vowels are in initial position if a following consonant is velar or labial. For example: the demonstratives uka, ika, and aka.
Long vowels are lower than their short counterpart vowels, but are less retracted if they make contact with a uvular consonant. For example: uuquchiing 'blue fox,' qiiqix̂ 'storm-petrel', and qaaqaan 'eat it!'
FrontCentralBack
Closei iːu uː
Mid
Opena aː

Consonants

The Aleut consonants featured below include single Roman letters, digraphs, and one trigraph. Phonemes in parenthesis are found only in Russian and English loanwords, the phoneme in italics is found only in Eastern Aleut, and the bold phonemes are a part of the standard Aleut inventory.
Aleut lacks labial stops and allows clusters of up to three consonants as well as consonant clusters in word initial position.
Noteworthy phonological features: lack of a and its voiceless nasals

Morphology

Language type

Polysynthetic language

Eskimo-Aleut is polysynthetic, which features a process in which a single word is able to contain multiple post-bases or morphemes. The Eskimo–Aleut languages are exclusively suffixing. Suffixes are able to combine and ultimately create an unlimited number of words. Some of the morphemes that are able to attach contain features such as carrying nominal subjects and objects, adverbial information, direct objects, and spatial noun phrases. Polysynthetic languages are said to be a form of extreme agglutination, which allows single words to carry the same information that another language expresses in whole clauses. For example, in central Alaskan Yupik, one can say:
qayarpaliqasqessaagellruaqa
qayar-pa-li-qa-sqe-ssaage-llru-aqa
kayak-big-make-pol-ev-A.ask-but-past-1sg/3sg.ind
I asked him to make a big kayak.

As a polysynthetic language, Eskimo-Aleut is concerned with what "each morpheme means, which categories it can attach to, whether there is any category change, etc. and what type of morphophonological effect occurs to the left as it attaches to the stem".

Morphosyntactic alignment

Ergative-absolutive language:
Eskimo-Aleut follows the basic word order of Subject-Object-Verb.
Eskimo is an ergative–absolutive language. This means subjects of intransitive verbs and objects of transitive verbs are marked with the absolutive case, while subjects of transitive verbs are marked with the ergative case.
Aleut is not an ergative-absolutive language. It doesn't matter if the verb is transitive or intransitive—subjects and objects are not marked differently.
If a transitive object or an object of possession is openly communicated, ergative case marking will not be expressed. If a transitive object or object of possession is not openly communicated, then ergative case marking will be expressed.
Example of case marking in Aleut:

Syntax

The syntax of Eskimo-Aleut is concerned with the functional use of its morphological structure. The two language branches, although part of the same family, have separated and detached themselves in relation to grammatical similarities. Bergsland states that Aleut, which was once a language more similar to Proto-Eskimo than the current Eskimo languages themselves, has distanced itself from the ancient language.
The case inflections, "relative *-m, instrumental *-mEk/meN, and locative *-mi have undergone phonological merger and led to a completely different explanation of ergative morphology in Proto-Eskimo.
In order to further explain the profound changes that have occurred in Aleutian syntax, Bergsland proposed the Domino Effect, which is ultimately the chronological order of Aleut’s unique features. Below is a step by step list of the 'domino effect':
The Domino Effect:
  1. The phonological reduction of final syllables and the ensuing syncretism of locative, relative, and instrumental case markers;
  2. The collapse of the ergative system referent, and;
  3. The spread of such a referent's own number to the final verb of the sentence, overriding agreement with the subject.

    Vocabulary comparison

The following is a comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Eskimo–Aleut language family. Note that empty cells do not imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language is formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language. Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.
Cognates of the Eskimo language can be found in Michael Fortescue et al., 2010.
Cognates of the Aleut language can be found in Knut Bergsland, 1997.
; Persons

Common meaningAleutProto-EskimoSirenikSiberian YupikAlutiiqYup'ikSeward InupiaqQawiaraqMalimiutunNorth SlopeUummarmiutunSiglitunInuinnaqtunNatsilikKivalliqAivilikNorth BaffinSouth BaffinNunavikLabrador InuttutNorth GreenlandicWest GreenlandicEast Greenlandic
boyhlax*aleqanukeɫpegaẋnukaɫpegaqnukaɫpiaqnukaɫpiaqnugatpiaqnugatpiaqnukatpiaqnukatpiaqnukatpiaqnukatpiraqnukatpiaqnukatpiaqnukatpiaqnukappiaqnukappiaqnukappiaqnukappiaqnukappiaknukappiaqnukappiraqnugappiaq
daughter*paniɣpanexpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanikpanik
family, relativeilaanux̂*ilailailailailailailailailailailailailailailailailailailailailaila
girlayaĝaadax̂*nǝviʁca-náẋserráẋneveghsaqneviarcaqniaqsaaʁrukniaqsiaʁrukniviaqsiaʁrukniviaqsiaʁrukniviakkaqniviaqsiraqniviaqhiaqniviaqhiaqniviakkiaqniviaqsiaqniviaqsaaqniviaqsiaqniviatsiaqniviatsiakniviarhiaqniviarsiaraqniiarsiaq
fatheradax̂/taatax̂*ata *ata-ataataataataaataata/avaata/avaaapa/taataaapaaapa/ataaappak/ataatakaappakataataataataataataataataataataataataataataataataataataqalaala
human being taĝutaʁutarextaghutarutarutautautautautautautautautautautautautautautautaataa
husbandugi*uɣiugaugwikwikwiiuiuiuiuiuiuiuiuiuiuiuiuiuiuikuiuiuviq
mantayaĝux̂*aŋu-ntangetaangunangunangunangunangunangunangunangunangunangunangutangutangutangutiangutiangutiangutikangutanguttikkaq
motheranax̂*ana *ana-ananananaa/anaaanaaanaaagaaagaaakaaakaaakaamaamak/aanaamaamak/anaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaanaqannivik
mother-in-law*cakisakasakicakicakiqsagichagisakisakihakigaqsakihakihakihakigaqsakisakisakisakisakikhakisakisaqiq/sagiq
older brother huyux̂*aNǝ-LГunantaaningakanngaqanngaqanianianianianianiraalukanianianianianianianianikanianiani
older sister uhngix*aleqanuskitalqaqaɫqaqaliraqaliqaqaliqaqaliqaqaliqaqaliqaqaliqaqaliqaqaliqaqaliqaqaliqaqaliqannaqangajukangajukangajukaliqaaleqaqalara
personanĝaĝinax̂*inguɣjuxyuksukyuk/cukinukinukiñukiñukiñukinukinukinukinukinukinukinukinukinukinukinukiik
son*iʁni-ʁirnexighneqirneqirneqirniqirniqirñiqirñiqirñiqirniqirniqirniqirniqirniqirniqirniqirniqinnikirniqerneqirniq
wifeayagax̂*nuLiaqnucixnuliiqnuliqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaqnuliaknuliaqnuliaqnuliaq
womanayaĝax̂*aʁnaqarnaxarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqarnaqannakarnaqarnaqnuliakkaaq
young brother kingii*nukaqungjexuyughaquyuwaquyuraqnukaqnukaqnukaaluknukaaluknukaqnukaqnukaqnukaqmukaqnukaqnukaqnukaqnukaqnukaknukaqnukaqnukaq
young sister uhngix*nayaknajexnayaknayaknayaknayaknayaknayaknayaknayaknayaknayaknayaknayaknajaknajaknajaknajaknajaatsuknajaknajaknajak

; Pronouns
There are two types of pronouns in Eskimo-Aleut: independent pronouns and pronominal pronouns.
;; Pronouns in relation to nouns
In Eskimo-Aleut, singular, dual and plural nouns are marked by inflectional suffixes, and if they are possessed, the number marker is followed by pronominal suffixes that specify the possessor. There are no genders in the Eskimo–Aleut languages, and this can be seen in the 4 persons: my, your, his/her, his/her own.
"His/Her own" specifies ownership, in contrast with "his/her", which does not. E.g., his house vs. his own house.
;; Pronouns in relation to verbs
Aleut uses independent pronouns, instead of pronominal marking on verbs. On the other hand, Eskimo languages has 4 persons and 3 numbers marked by pronominal suffixes.
; Independent pronouns

Common meaningAleutProto-EskimoSirenikSiberian YupikAlutiiqYup'ikSeward InupiaqQawiaraqMalimiutunNorth SlopeUummarmiutunSiglitunInuinnaqtunNatsilikKivalliqAivilikNorth BaffinSouth BaffinNunavikLabrador InuttutNorth GreenlandicWest GreenlandicEast Greenlandic
first-person singular ting*vimengahwangaw'iingaw'iingawangauangauvangauvangauvangauvangauvangauvangauvangauvangauvangauvangauvaqauvakuangauangauara
second-person singular txin*ǝɫ-vǝn-tɫpiɫpeteɫpeteɫpetivlinilvinilvichilvichilvikilvitilvitivrit/itvinigvin/idvinigvitivvitivvitivvitiffitihhit/i'litiɫɫitittit
third-person singular ilaa/uda*ǝɫ-ŋa *unalanga/unalnga/unaelen/unaelii/unailaa/unailaa/unailaa/unailaa/unailaa/unailaa/unaunaunaunaunaunaunaunaunaunaunauna
first-person dual tingix*vikhwagakukw'iingakukw'iingakukwagukuagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvagukuvaguk
second-person dual txidix*ǝɫ-ptekɫpetekeɫpetekeɫpetekiliptikiliptikiliptikiliptikiliptikiliptikiliptikiliptikiliptikiliptikilissikilittikilittikilittik
first-person plural tingin*vitmengaketahwagakutaw'iingakutaw'iingakutawagutuagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuvagutuagutuagutuangit
second-person dual reflexive txichix*ǝɫ-vcetɫpisiɫpesieɫpicieɫpeciilipsiilipsiilivsiilivsiiliffiilipsiiliffiiliphiiliphiilipsiilissiilitsiilitsiilitsiilissiilissiilitsi
third-person dual reflexive ilaan/udan*ǝɫ-ŋat *ukuatlangwi/uketlngit/ukutelita/ukuteliita/ukutilaat/uguailaat/uguailaat/ukuailaat/ukuailaat/ukuailaat/ukuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaukua/ukkuaugua/ukkua

; Pronominal suffixes


; Interrogative words

Common meaningAleutProto-EskimoSirenikSiberian YupikAlutiiqYup'ikSeward InupiaqQawiaraqMalimiutunNorth SlopeUummarmiutunSiglitunInuinnaqtunNatsilikKivalliqAivilikNorth BaffinSouth BaffinNunavikLabrador InuttutNorth GreenlandicWest GreenlandicEast Greenlandic
whokiin*kinakiinkinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakinakia
whatalqux*caŋusangǝ̄́casangwa/sunacacaqcacaq/tcaunasunasuasuasuna/suvahunasunahunahunahunasunakisusunasunasunakihusuna/suakisik
when qanaayam*qanga/qakuqanga/qakuqavnga/kakuqangwaq/qakuqangvaq/qakuqanga/qagunqanga/qaguqaglaan/qakuqanga/qakuqanga/qakuqanga/qakuguqanga/qakuguqanga/qakuguqanga/qakuguqanga/qakuguqanga/qakuguqanga/qakuguqanga/qakugukanga/kakuguqanga/qakuguqanga/qaquguqanga/qara
whereqaataa*naninaninani/naa/saminama/naninani/caminaung/naninaunga/nanisumi/nani/naungsumi/nani/naunghumi/nani/nausumi/nani/naunghumi/nani/naunghumi/naungnani/naungsumi/nauknani/nauknami/naninami/naninami/nanihumisumisumi
whyalqul*caŋusangaamisangamicin/caluniciin/calunisuamisuamisumman/suvataasumman/suvataahuuqsuuqhuuqhuuqhuuqsuuqsuuqsungmatsumutsummathuuqsuuqsuuq

; Body parts

Common meaningAleutProto-EskimoSirenikSiberian YupikAlutiiqYup'ikSeward InupiaqQawiaraqMalimiutunNorth SlopeUummarmiutunSiglitunInuinnaqtunNatsilikKivalliqAivilikNorth BaffinSouth BaffinNunavikLabrador InuttutNorth GreenlandicWest GreenlandicEast Greenlandic
anusidiĝasix̂*ǝtǝʁtexeteqeteqteqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitiqitikitiqiteqiliq? *kiaavik
armchuyux̂*taɫi-jaqextaɫiqtaɫiqtaɫiqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliqtaliktaliqtaleqtaliq
bellyxax*aqjaaqiiaqyaqaqsaqaqsaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqaqiaqakiakaqiaqaqajaqariaq
bloodaamaaxs*aruɣacex/aruxawkaukaukawkaukaukaukaukaukaukaukaukaukaukaukaukaukaukaakaak
calftugaadix̂*nakacuɣ-na-nakasegnaxnakasugnaqnakacugnaqnakacugnaqnakasungnaqnakasungnaqnakasrungnaqnakasungnaqnakahungnaqnakasungnaqnakahungnaqnakahungnaqnakahungnaqnakasungnaqnakasungnaqnakasunnaqnakasunnaqnakasunnaknakahungnaqnakasunnaaq
eartutusix̂*ciɣuntsiigetasiguncuunciunsiunsiunsiunsiunhiunsiunhiunhiuthiutsiutsiutisiutisiutisiutikhiutsiutsiit/*tusaat
eyedax̂*irǝecaiyaii/iingaqii/iingaqiziiziiriiriiyiiyiiyiiriiyiijiijiijiijiijikihiisiili
eyelashdam qaxsaa*qǝmǝʁja-qemerjax/seqpixqemeryaq/siqpikqemeryaq/ciqpikqemeryaq/ciqpekqimiriaq/siqpiqqimiriaq/siqpikqimiriaq/siqpikqimiriaq/siqpikqimiriaq/hiqpikqimiriaq/siqpikqimiriaq/hiqpikqimiriaq/hiqpikqimiriaq/hiqpikqimiriaq/siqpikqimiriaq/siqpikqimiriaq/siqpikqimiriaq/siqpikkimigiak/sippikqimiriaq/hiqpikqimeriaq/serpikqimiiaq/sirpik
fingeratx̂ux̂*ińura-nuraxyughaqsuaraqyuaraqinugaqinugaqiñugaqiñugaqiñugaqinugaqinugaqinugaqinugaqinugaqinugaqinugaqinugaqinugakinugaqinuaqiiaq
fingernail*kikrakiikiakkigiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkikiakkigiak
footkitax̂*itǝɣ-ítegáitegaqitaqitgaqitigakitigaqisigakisigakihigakitigakitigakihigakitigakitigakisigakitigakitigakitigakihigakisigak
hairiimlix*ńujaqnujǝẋ/jujǝẋnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnuyaqnujaqnujaqnujaqnujaqnujaknujaqnujaqnujaq
handchax̂*arɣaácxeẋaykaqaikaqaikaqagrakagraqargakargakargakadjgak *aygakalgakargakadjgakaggakaggakaggakaggakaggakaghakassakattak
headkamĝix̂*ńarǝ-qu-iiceqeẋnaasquq/nayquqnasquqnacquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniaquqniakukniaquqniaqoqsuuniq
heartkanuux̂*uŋ-uma-ungevataunguvanunguwanunguvanuummanuummanuummanuummanuummanuummanuummanuummatuummatuummatuummatiuummatiuummatiuummatikuummatuummatiimmat
kneechidiĝix*ciɣǝr-qusigesqeẋserquqcisquqciisquqsiitquqsiitquqsiitquqsiitquqhiitquqsiitquqhiitquqhiitquqhiitquqsiiqquqsiiqquqsiiqquqsiirquqsiikkukhiiqquqsiiqqoq
navelqiihliqdax̂*qacaɫǝʁqaɫasexqasaɫeqqaɫaciqqaɫaciqqalaziqqalachiqqalasriqqalasiqqalahiqqalasiqqalahiqqalahiqqalahiqqalasiqqalasiqqalasiqqalasiqkalasikqalahiqqalaseq
noseangusix̂*qǝŋa-qengaxqengaqqengaqqengaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqqingaqkingakqingaqqingaqqingaq

; Animals

Common meaningAleutProto-EskimoSirenikSiberian YupikAlutiiqYup'ikSeward InupiaqQawiaraqMalimiutunNorth SlopeUummarmiutunSiglitunInuinnaqtunNatsilikKivalliqAivilikNorth BaffinSouth BaffinNunavikLabrador InuttutNorth GreenlandicWest GreenlandicEast Greenlandic
bowhead whale, whalealax̂*aʁvǝʁarvexarveqarweq/arruqarveqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqarviqavvikarviqarfeqarpiq
Canada gooselaĝix̂*lǝqlǝʁleẋɫeẋleghɫeqneqɫeqneqɫeqlirliqlirliqlirliqnirliqnirliqnirliqnirliqnirliqnirliqlirliq/nirliqnirliqnirliqnirliqnilliknirliqnerɫeqnirtiq
caribouitx̂aygix̂*tuŋtutumtatungtutuntutuntututtututtututtututtututtutuktutuktutuktutuktutuktutuktututtututtututtuktuktututtututtuq
dogsabaakax̂*qikmi-qepeneẋqikmiqqiqmiq/piugtaqimugtaqimmiqqimmiqqipmiqqimmiqqimmiqqimmiqqinmiqqingmiq/qimmiqqingmiq/qimmiqqimmiqqimmiqqimmiqqimmiqkimmikqimmiqqimmeqqimmiq
fishqax̂*ǝqaɫuɣiqeɫexiqaɫukiqaɫukiqaɫukiralukiralukiqalukiqalukqalukiqalukiqalukiqalukiqalukiqalukiqalukiqalukiqalukikalukiqalukeqalukiqalik
groundhog, Arctic squirrelsixsix*sigsiksiksixsikikcikikcikiksiksrikchiksriksiksriksiksriksiksriksiksikhikhikhiksikhikhiksiksiksiksisitsiksitsiksitsikhighiksissisitsiq
killer whaleaglux̂*aʁɫuɣarɫux?arɫukaqɫukarɫukaarluaarluaarluaarluaarluaarluaarluaarlukaarlukaarlukaarlukaarlukaarlukaallukaarlukaarɫukaartiq?
lousekitux̂*kumaɣkúmexkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumakkumak
oldsquaw/long-tailed duckaagix̂*aXaŋǝ-liʁaahaangalexaahaangwliqahangkilukaahaangiiq/aahaaliqaa'aangiqaa'aangiqaahaaliqaahaaliqahaangiqahaangiqaahaalliqahaangiqahaangiqahaangiqahaangiqahaangiqahaangiqahaangikahaangiqahaangiqahaangiq
ptarmiganaĝdiikax̂*aqărɣiʁaqergexaqargiiq/aqarriqaqasgiiqaqazgiiqarargiqarargiqaqargiqaqargiqaqaygiqaqiygiqaqilgiqaqirgiq/aqigriqaqidjgiqaqiggiqaqiggiqaqiggiqaqiggiqakiggikaqighiqaqisseqnagalaraq
swanqukingix̂*quɣruɣqerúmɫeráẋquukqugyuqqugyuqqugrukqugrukqugrukqugrukqugrukqugyukqugyukqugyukqugyukqugjukqugjukqujjukqujjukkutjukqughukqussukqutsuk

; Other nouns

Common meaningAleutProto-EskimoSirenikSiberian YupikAlutiiqYup'ikSeward InupiaqQawiaraqMalimiutunNorth SlopeUummarmiutunSiglitunInuinnaqtunNatsilikKivalliqAivilikNorth BaffinSouth BaffinNunavikLabrador InuttutNorth GreenlandicWest GreenlandicEast Greenlandic
and, alsoama*ammaama/samaamahwa/aamtaamleq/camaamleq/camaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaammaaammaaamma
arrow*qaʁruqarceẋruuqruuqqeruqqarruqqarruqqarruqqarruqqarruqqaryuqqaryuqqaryuqqaryuqqarjuqqarjuqqarjukqajjukkatjukqarhuqqarsoqqarliq
ashutxix̂*aʁraarexaʁraaraqaraqarraarraarraarraarraaryaaryaaryaaryaarjaarjaarjaajjaatjakarhaqarsaqarlaq
atmosphere, weather, outsilan/slax̂*cǝlasiɫasɫaaɫaciɫa/ellasilachilasilasilahilasilahilahilahilasilasilasilasilasilahilasilasila
breathangil*anǝʁ-anerte-anernaqanerneqanerneqanirniqanirniqaniqniqanirniqanirniqanirniqanirniqanirniqanirniqanirniqanirniqanirniqanirniqaninnikanirniqanerneqanirniq
cloud*nụvǝjanuiyanuwiyanuviyanuviyanuvuyanuvuyanuvuyanuvuyanuvuyanuvujanuvujaqnuvujaqnuvujaqnuvujaknuvujaqnuiaqnuviaq
cookunagix̂*ǝɣaegaegaegaegaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaigaegainga
cry, weepqidal*qiRă-qejeqeyaqiaqeyaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiaqiakiaqiaqiaqia
dog barkingqihlux*qiluɣqeluxqilugaqqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukqilukkilukqilukqilukqiliilaq
earthtanax̂*lunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanunanuna
featherhaka*culuksileksilukculukculuksulukchuluksuluksulukhuluksulukhulukhulukhuluksuluksuluksuluksuluksulukhuluksuluksiik
fireqignal*ǝknǝ-ekn'exekneqkeneqkeneqikniqitniqikniqigniqingniqingniqingniqingniqingniqingniqingniqinniqinniqinnikingniqinneqigivattattiq
Here it is!wa*uvahwahwaw'aw'auvvaauvvaauvvauvvauvvauvvauvvauvvauvvauvvauvvauvvauvvauvvauhhauffauppa
hilltopqayax̂*qemiqemixqemiqqemiqqemiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqqimiqkimikqimiqqimeqqimiq
houseulax̂*ǝŋluluingluengluengluigluigluigluigluigluigluigluigluigluigluigluilluilluillukigluiɫɫuittiq
hungryhaagil*kajakkajexkeekkaikkaikkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaakkaak
kiss, kiss on noseqingul*kungiksingeqsingaqcingaqcingaqkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunikkunik
lakehanix̂*taci-ʁjajvexnayvaqnanwaqnanvaqnavraq/teziqnavraq/tachiqnarvaq/tasriqnarvaq/tasiqnarvaq/tahiqnayvaq/tasiqnalvaq/tahiqnarvaq/tahiqnagvaq/tahiqnavvaq/tasiqnavvaq/tasiqnavvaq/tasiqnavvaq/tasiqnavvak/tasiknassak/tahiqnassak/taseqnattak/tasiq
loadhusix̂*uciusausiuciuciuziuchiusriusiuhiusiuhiuhiuhiusiusiusiusiusikuhiusiusi
milkmulukax*emug, itugituk/emungeituk/emukmukitukimmukimmukimmukimmukitukmilukmilukitukimmukimmukimmukimmukimmukimmukimmukimmukimmuk
nameasax̂*atǝʁatexateqateqateqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatiqatikatiqateqaliq
nonangaa*naaka *qaanganaakanaka/naahkaaina/qanganaami/naaggaqanngaq/naagganaumi/naakkanaumi/naagganaggainaaggaiimannaqiiq/naagganaung/naagganauk/aakkaaakka/naaggaaukka/aggaqnaggai/naukaukangna'a/naagganaami/naaggaiiqqii
price, valueakiisal*akiakaakiakiakiakiakiagiagiakiakiakiakiakiakiakiakiakiakiakikakiagiq
shamanqugaaĝix̂*aŋalku-angekexangaɫkuqangaɫquqangaɫkuqangatkuqangatkuqangatkuqangatkuqangatkuqangatkuqangatkuqangatkuqangatkuqangakkuqangakkuqangakkuqangakkuqangakkukangakkuqangakkoqangakkiq
ship, boatayxaasix̂*umiaumaxumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiaqumiakumiaqumiaqumiaq
skyinix̂*qilaɣqilexqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakqilakkilakqilakqilakqilak
smokehuyux̂s*pujupujexpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpuyuqpujuqpujuqpujuqpujuqpujukpujuqpujuqpujuq
snowqaniigix̂*qaniɣqanixqanikqanikqaniqqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikqanikkanikqanikqanikqanik
starsdax̂*umluriauvluriaquvluriaquvluriaquvluriaquvluriaqubluriaqubluriaqubluriaqubluriaqubluriaqulluriaqulluriaqulluriaqullugiakulluriaqulloriaqutturiaq
sun, dayaĝadĝix̂*ciqi-nǝʁsiqinexsiqineq/mazaqciqineq/masaqciqineq/macaqsiriniq/mazaqchiqiniq/machaqsiqiñiq/masaqsiqiñiqhiqiñiqsiqiniqhiqiniqhiqiniqhiqiniqsiqiniqsiqiniqsiqiniqsiqiniqsikinikhiqiniqseqineqsiirliq
tell a story/legenduniikal*uniɣ-paʁ-unircexungikpaqunifkuaqunifkaraqunipkaaqunipkaaqunipkaaqunipkaaqunipkaaqunipkaaqunipkaaqunipkaaqunipkaaqunipkaaqunikkaaqunikkaaqunikkaaqunikkaakunikkaaqunikkaaqunikkaaq
tentpulaatxix̂*tupǝʁtupextupeqtuviqtuviqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiqtupiktupiqtupeqtupiq
to askahmat-*apeteapet-apetaqa-apqar-apete-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apiri-apigi-apiri-aperi-apii-
to urinateqaalux̂**quʁǝ-qux-teqexuraquqqure-qure-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-qui-kui-qui-qui-quvi-
tree, wood*napar-napaxnapartuqnapaqnapanapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtuqnapaaqtiqnapaattuqnapaattukuqpik/napaaqtuqurpik/napaartoqurpik/napaartuq
watertaangax̂*ǝmǝʁmexemeqmeqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimiqimikimiqimeqimiq
windachunal*anuqǝanuqaanuqaanuqaanuqaanurianurianurianurianurianurianurianurianurianurianurianurianurianugikanurianorianirsiq
yesaang*aa/iiiiiiii-iii-iii-iii-iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiaapii

; Adjectives

Common meaningAleutProto-EskimoSirenikSiberian YupikAlutiiqYup'ikSeward InupiaqQawiaraqMalimiutunNorth SlopeUummarmiutunSiglitunInuinnaqtunNatsilikKivalliqAivilikNorth BaffinSouth BaffinNunavikLabrador InuttutNorth GreenlandicWest GreenlandicEast Greenlandic
Cold!/Brrr!/How cold!ababa*alaapaaalaapaalaappaalaappaalaappaalaappaalaappaalaappaalaappaikkiiikkiiikkiiikkiiikkiiikkiiikkiiikkiiikkii
copperkanuuyax̂**kanɣu-jakanujekanuyakanuyaqkanuyaqkannuuyaqkannuyaqkannuyaqkannguyaqkannuyaqkannuyaqkannuyaqkannuyaqkanuhaqkannujaqkannujaqkannujaqkanusaqkannujakkannussaqkanngussakkanngutsak
fatignatul*quviquginaẋquginaqquiliquvinaqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqquiniqkuinikquiniqquineqquiniq
grey hairqidaayux*qirʁǝʁqircéreɫeẋqiiqqiiqqiiqqiʁriqqirʁiqqirʁiqqirʁiqirʁiqqiyriqqiiqqiriqqiiqqiiqqiiqqiiqqiiqkiikqiiqqeeqqiiq
longadul*takǝtakevaláẋtaakǝlʁitakequqtakequqtagiruqtagiruqtakiruqtakiruqtakiruqtakiyuqtakiyuqtakiyuqtakiyuqtakijuqtakijuqtakijuqtakijuqtakijuktakihuuqtakisooq/takivoqtagiliq
still, also, moreahlii*culisalisalincalicalisulichulisulisulihulisulihulihulihulisulisulisulisulisulihulisulisuli
swellhums*puvetpuvceqertéẋpuuvaaquqpuge-puve-puit-puit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puvit-puik-puiq-
whitequhmax̂*qătǝ-ʁqetexqeteqqeteqqeter-qatiqqatiqqatiqqatiqqatiqqatiqqakuqtaqqaquqtaqqakuqtaqqakuqtaqqakuqtaqqakuqtaqqakutaqkakuttakqakuqtuqqaqortoqqaartiq

; Numbers

Common meaningAleutProto-EskimoSirenikSiberian YupikAlutiiqYup'ikSeward InupiaqQawiaraqMalimiutunNorth SlopeUummarmiutunSiglitunInuinnaqtunNatsilikKivalliqAivilikNorth BaffinSouth BaffinNunavikLabrador InuttutNorth GreenlandicWest GreenlandicEast Greenlandic
oneataqan*ataʁu-ci-ateresexataaziqatauciq/atuusiqatauciqatausiqatauchiqatausriqatausiqatauhiqatausiqatauhiqatauhiqatauhiqatausiqatausiqatausiqatausiqatausikatauhiqataaseqalaasiq
twoaalax̂*malǝʁu-malrugmalghukmallukmalrukmarluukmarlukmalrukmalrukmalrukmalrukmalruukmalruukmalruukmarruukmarruukmarruukmaqruukmagguukmarlukmarlukmartut
threeqankun*pingajuntpingejugpingayutpingaunpingayunpingasutpingachutpiñgasrutpiñgasutpiñgahutpingasutpingahutpingahutpingahutpingasutpingasutpingasutpingasutpingasutpingahutpingasutpingasit
foursiiching*cǝtama-sitamijsitamatstaamatcetamansitamanchitamansisamansisamanhihamansitamanhitamanhihamathitamatsitamattisamatsitamatsitamatsitamathihamatsisamatsiamat
fivechaang*taɫimantasímengíyitaɫimattaɫimantaɫimantaulimantalimantallimantallimantallimantallimantallimantallimattallimattallimattallimattallimattallimattallimattaddimattallimattattimat
sixatuung*aʁvineleghinglexaghvínelekarwinlgenarvinglegenarwinilikarwinilikitchaksratitchaksatitchakhatarvinillikarvinillikarviniqarvinraqarviniqtutarviniliitpingasuujuqtutpingasuujurtutpingasuujuttutarhinidditarfinillitarpiniit
tenhatix̂*qulǝqulex?qulaqulinqulaqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitqulitkulitqulitqulitqutit