English grammar


English grammar is the way in which meanings are encoded into wordings in the English language. This includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences, right up to the structure of whole texts.
There are historical, social, cultural and regional variations of English. Divergences from the grammar described here occur in some dialects. This article describes a generalized present-day Standard English – a form of speech and writing used in public discourse, including broadcasting, education, entertainment, government, and news, over a range of registers from formal to informal. There are differences in grammar between the standard forms of British, American, and Australian English, although these are more minor than differences in vocabulary and pronunciation.
Modern English has largely abandoned the inflectional case system of Indo-European in favor of analytic constructions. The personal pronouns retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class. For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, grammatical function is indicated only by word order, by prepositions, and by the "Saxon genitive or English possessive".
Eight "word classes" or "parts of speech" are commonly distinguished in English: nouns, determiners, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Nouns form the largest word class, and verbs the second-largest. Unlike many Indo-European languages, English nouns do not have grammatical gender.

Word classes and phrases

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs form open classes – word classes that readily accept new members, such as the noun celebutante, and other similar relatively new words. The others are considered to be closed classes. For example, it is rare for a new pronoun to enter the language. Determiners, traditionally classified along with adjectives, have not always been regarded as a separate part of speech. Interjections are another word class, but these are not described here as they do not form part of the clause and sentence structure of the language.
Linguists generally accept nine English word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, and exclamations. English words are not generally marked for word class. It is not usually possible to tell from the form of a word which class it belongs to except, to some extent, in the case of words with inflectional endings or derivational suffixes. On the other hand, most words belong to more than one word class. For example, run can serve as either a verb or a noun. Lexemes may be inflected to express different grammatical categories. The lexeme run has the forms runs, ran, runny, runner, and running. Words in one class can sometimes be derived from those in another. This has the potential to give rise to new words. The noun aerobics has recently given rise to the adjective aerobicized.
Words combine to form phrases. A phrase typically serves the same function as a word from some particular word class. For example, my very good friend Peter is a phrase that can be used in a sentence as if it were a noun, and is therefore called a noun phrase. Similarly, adjectival phrases and adverbial phrases function as if they were adjectives or adverbs, but with other types of phrases the terminology has different implications. For example, a verb phrase consists of a verb together with any objects and other dependents; a prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its complement ; and a determiner phrase is a type of noun phrase containing a determiner.

Nouns

Many common suffixes form nouns from other nouns or from other types of words, such as -age, -hood, and so on, although many nouns are base forms not containing any such suffix. Nouns are also often created by conversion of verbs or adjectives, as with the words talk and reading.
Nouns are sometimes classified semantically as proper nouns and common nouns or as concrete nouns and abstract nouns. A grammatical distinction is often made between count nouns such as clock and city, and non-count nouns such as milk and decor. Some nouns can function both as countable and as uncountable such as the word "wine".
Countable nouns generally have singular and plural forms. In most cases the plural is formed from the singular by adding -s, although there are also irregular forms, including cases where the two forms are identical. For more details, see English plural. Certain nouns can be used with plural verbs even though they are singular in form, as in The government were.... This is a form of synesis; it is more common in British than American English. See.
English nouns are not marked for case as they are in some languages, but they have possessive forms, through the addition of -'s or just an apostrophe in the case of -s plurals and sometimes other words ending with -s. More generally, the ending can be applied to noun phrases ; see below. The possessive form can be used either as a determiner or as a noun phrase.
The status of the possessive as an affix or a clitic is the subject of debate. It differs from the noun inflection of languages such as German, in that the genitive ending may attach to the last word of the phrase. To account for this, the possessive can be analysed, for instance as a clitic construction or as an inflection of the last word of a phrase.

Phrases

s are phrases that function grammatically as nouns within sentences, for example as the subject or object of a verb. Most noun phrases have a noun as their head.
An English noun phrase typically takes the following form :
In this structure:
An example of a noun phrase that includes all of the above-mentioned elements is that rather attractive young college student to whom you were talking. Here that is the determiner, rather attractive and young are adjectival pre-modifiers, college is a noun adjunct, student is the noun serving as the head of the phrase, and to whom you were talking is a post-modifier. Notice the order of the pre-modifiers; the determiner that must come first and the noun adjunct college must come after the adjectival modifiers.
Coordinating conjunctions such as and, or, and but can be used at various levels in noun phrases, as in John, Paul, and Mary; the matching green coat and hat; a dangerous but exciting ride; a person sitting down or standing up. See below for more explanation.
Noun phrases can also be placed in apposition, as in that president, Abraham Lincoln,.... In some contexts the same can be expressed by a prepositional phrase, as in the twin curses of famine and pestilence.
Particular forms of noun phrases include:
A system of grammatical gender, whereby every noun was treated as either masculine, feminine or neuter, existed in Old English, but fell out of use during the Middle English period. Modern English retains features relating to natural gender, namely the use of certain nouns and pronouns to refer specifically to persons or animals of one or other genders and certain others for sexless objects – although feminine pronouns are sometimes used when referring to ships and nation states.
Some aspects of gender usage in English have been influenced by the movement towards a preference for gender-neutral language. Animals are triple-gender nouns, being able to take masculine, feminine and neuter pronouns. Generally there is no difference between male and female in English nouns. However, gender is occasionally exposed by different shapes or dissimilar words when referring to people or animals.
MasculineFeminineGender neutral
manwomanadult
boygirlchild
husbandwifespouse
actoractressperformer
roosterhenchicken

Many nouns that mention people's roles and jobs can refer to either a masculine or a feminine subject, for instance "cousin", "teenager", "teacher", "doctor", "student", "friend", and "colleague".
Often the gender distinction for these neutral nouns is established by inserting the words "male" or "female".
Rarely, nouns illustrating things with no gender are referred to with a gendered pronoun to convey familiarity. It is also standard to use the gender-neutral pronoun.
English determiners constitute a relatively small class of words. They include the articles the and a; certain demonstrative and interrogative words such as this, that, and which; possessives such as my and whose ; various quantifying words like all, some, many, various; and numerals. There are also many phrases that can play the role of determiners.
Determiners are used in the formation of noun phrases. Many words that serve as determiners can also be used as pronouns.
Determiners can be used in certain combinations, such as all the water and the many problems.
In many contexts, it is required for a noun phrase to be completed with an article or some other determiner. It is not grammatical to say just cat sat on table; one must say my cat sat on the table. The most common situations in which a complete noun phrase can be formed without a determiner are when it refers generally to a whole class or concept and when it is a name. This is discussed in more detail at English articles and Zero article in English.

Pronouns

s are a relatively small, closed class of words that function in the place of nouns or noun phrases. They include personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and some others, mainly indefinite pronouns.

Personal

The personal pronouns of modern standard English, and the corresponding possessive forms, are as follows:
NominativeObliqueReflexivePossessive determinerPossessive pronoun
1st pers. sing.Imemyselfmymine
2nd pers. sing./pl.youyouyourself/yourselvesyouryours
3rd pers. sing.she, he, they, ither, him, them, itherself, himself, themself, itselfher, his, their, itshers, his, theirs, its
1st pers. pl.weusourselvesourours
3rd pers. pl.theythemthemselvestheirtheirs

The second-person forms such as you are used with both singular and plural reference. In the Southern United States, y'all is used as a plural form, and various other phrases such as you guys are used in other places. An archaic set of second-person pronouns used for singular reference is thou, thee, thyself, thy, thine, which are still used in religious services and can be seen in older works, such as Shakespeare's—in such texts, the you set of pronouns are used for plural reference, or with singular reference as a formal V-form. You can also be used as an indefinite pronoun, referring to a person in general, compared to the more formal alternative, one.
The third-person singular forms are differentiated according to the sex of the referent. For example, she is used to refer to a female person, sometimes a female animal, and sometimes an object to which female characteristics are attributed, such as a ship or a country. A male person, and sometimes a male animal, is referred to using he. In other cases it can be used. The word it can also be used as a dummy subject, in sentences like It is going to be sunny this afternoon.
The third-person plural forms such as they are sometimes used with singular reference, as a gender-neutral pronoun, as in each employee should ensure they tidy their desk. Despite its long history, this usage is sometimes considered ungrammatical.
The possessive determiners such as my are used as determiners together with nouns, as in my old man, some of his friends. The second possessive forms like mine are used when they do not qualify a noun: as pronouns, as in mine is bigger than yours, and as predicates, as in this one is mine. Note also the construction a friend of mine. See English possessive for more details.

Demonstrative and interrogative

The demonstrative pronouns of English are this, and that, as in these are good, I like that. Note that all four words can also be used as determiners, as in those cars. They can also form the alternative pronominal expressions this/that one, these/those ones.
The interrogative pronouns are who, what, and which. The pronoun who refers to a person or people; it has an oblique form whom, and a possessive form whose. The pronoun what refers to things or abstracts. The word which is used to ask about alternatives from what is seen as a closed set: which do you like best? Which, who, and what can be either singular or plural, although who and what often take a singular verb regardless of any supposed number. For more information see who.
All the interrogative pronouns can also be used as relative pronouns; see below for more details.

Relative

The main relative pronouns in English are who, which, and that.
The relative pronoun which refers to things rather than persons, as in the shirt, which used to be red, is faded. For persons, who is used. The oblique case form of who is whom, as in the man whom I saw was tall, although in informal registers who is commonly used in place of whom.
The possessive form of who is whose ; however the use of whose is not restricted to persons.
The word that as a relative pronoun is normally found only in restrictive relative clauses. It can refer to either persons or things, and cannot follow a preposition. For example, one can say the song that I listened to yesterday, but the song to which I listened yesterday. The relative pronoun that is usually pronounced with a reduced vowel, and hence differently from the demonstrative that. If that is not the subject of the relative clause, it can be omitted.
The word what can be used to form a free relative clause – one that has no antecedent and that serves as a complete noun phrase in itself, as in I like what he likes. The words whatever and whichever can be used similarly, in the role of either pronouns or determiners. When referring to persons, who can be used in a similar way.

"There"

The word there is used as a pronoun in some sentences, playing the role of a dummy subject, normally of an intransitive verb. The "logical subject" of the verb then appears as a complement after the verb.
This use of there occurs most commonly with forms of the verb be in existential clauses, to refer to the presence or existence of something. For example: There is a heaven; There are two cups on the table; There have been a lot of problems lately. It can also be used with other verbs: There exist two major variants; There occurred a very strange incident.
The dummy subject takes the number of the logical subject, hence it takes a plural verb if the complement is plural. In informal English, however, the contraction there's is often used for both singular and plural.
The dummy subject can undergo inversion, Is there a test today? and Never has there been a man such as this. It can also appear without a corresponding logical subject, in short sentences and question tags: There wasn't a discussion, was there? There was.
The word there in such sentences has sometimes been analyzed as an adverb, or as a dummy predicate, rather than as a pronoun. However, its identification as a pronoun is most consistent with its behavior in inverted sentences and question tags as described above.
Because the word there can also be a deictic adverb, a sentence like There is a river could have either of two meanings: "a river exists", and "a river is in that place". In speech, the adverbial there would be given stress, while the pronoun would not – in fact the pronoun is often pronounced as a weak form,.

Other

Other pronouns in English are often identical in form to determiners, such as many, a little, etc. Sometimes, the pronoun form is different, as with none, nothing, everyone, somebody, etc. Many examples are listed as indefinite pronouns. Another indefinite pronoun is one, which is a more formal alternative to generic you.

Verbs

The basic form of an English verb is not generally marked by any ending, although there are certain suffixes that are frequently used to form verbs, such as -ate, -fy, and -ise/ize. Many verbs also contain prefixes, such un-, out-, over-, and under-. Verbs can also be formed from nouns and adjectives by zero derivation, as with the verbs snare, nose, dry, and calm.
Most verbs have three or four inflected forms in addition to the base form: a third-person singular present tense form in -s, a present participle and gerund form in -ing, a past tense, and – though often identical to the past tense form – a past participle. Regular verbs have identical past tense and past participle forms in -ed, but there are 100 or so irregular English verbs with different forms. The verbs have, do and say also have irregular third-person present tense forms. The verb be has the largest number of irregular forms.
Most of what are often referred to as verb tenses in English are formed using auxiliary verbs. Apart from what are called the simple present and simple past, there are also continuous forms, perfect forms, future forms, and conditionals with would in place of will. The auxiliaries shall and should sometimes replace will and would in the first person. For the uses of these various verb forms, see English verbs and English clause syntax.
The basic form of the verb is used as the infinitive, although there is also a "to-infinitive" used in many syntactical constructions. There are also infinitives corresponding to other aspects: have written, be writing, have been writing. The second-person imperative is identical to the infinitive; other imperative forms may be made with let.
A form identical to the infinitive can be used as a present subjunctive in certain contexts: It is important that he follow them or ... that he be committed to the cause. There is also a past subjunctive, used in some conditional sentences and similar: if I were rich...; were he to arrive now...; I wish she were here. For details see English subjunctive.
The passive voice is formed using the verb be with the past participle of the verb in question: cars are driven, he was killed, I am being tickled, it is nice to be pampered, etc. The performer of the action may be introduced in a prepositional phrase with by.
The English modal verbs consist of the core modals can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, as well as ought, had better, and in some uses dare and need. These do not inflect for person or number, and do not have infinitive or participle forms. The modals are used with the basic infinitive form of a verb, except for ought, which takes to.
The copula be, along with the modal verbs and the other auxiliaries, form a distinct class, sometimes called "special verbs" or simply "auxiliaries". These have different syntax from ordinary lexical verbs, especially in that they make their interrogative forms by plain inversion with the subject, and their negative forms by adding not after the verb. Apart from those already mentioned, this class may also include used to, and sometimes have even when not an auxiliary. It also includes the auxiliary do ; this is used with the basic infinitive of other verbs to make their question and negation forms, as well as emphatic forms. For more details of this, see do-support.
Some forms of the copula and auxiliaries often appear as contractions, as in I'm for I am, you'd for you would or you had, and John's for John is. Their negated forms with following not'' are also often contracted. For detail see English auxiliaries and contractions.

Phrases

A verb together with its dependents, excluding its subject, may be identified as a verb phrase. A verb phrase headed by a finite verb may also be called a predicate. The dependents may be objects, complements, and modifiers. In English, objects and complements nearly always come after the verb; a direct object precedes other complements such as prepositional phrases, but if there is an indirect object as well, expressed without a preposition, then that precedes the direct object: give me the book, but give the book to me. Adverbial modifiers generally follow objects, although other positions are possible. Certain verb–modifier combinations, particularly when they have independent meaning, are known as "phrasal verbs".
For details of possible patterns, see English clause syntax. See the Non-finite clauses section of that article for verb phrases headed by non-finite verb forms, such as infinitives and participles.

Adjectives

English adjectives, as with other word classes, cannot in general be identified as such by their form, although many of them are formed from nouns or other words by the addition of a suffix, such as -al, -ful, -ic, -ish, -ous, etc.; or from other adjectives using a prefix: disloyal, irredeemable, unforeseen, overtired.
Adjectives may be used attributively, as part of a noun phrase, as in the big house, or predicatively, as in the house is big. Certain adjectives are restricted to one or other use; for example, drunken is attributive, while drunk is usually predicative.

Comparison

Many adjectives have comparative and superlative forms in -er and -est, such as faster and fastest. Spelling rules which maintain pronunciation apply to suffixing adjectives just as they do for similar treatment of regular past tense formation; these cover consonant doubling and the change of y to i after consonants.
The adjectives good and bad have the irregular forms better, best and worse, worst; also far becomes farther, farthest or further, furthest. The adjective old also has the irregular forms elder and eldest, these generally being restricted to use in comparing siblings and in certain independent uses. For the comparison of adverbs, see [|Adverbs] below.
Many adjectives, however, particularly those that are longer and less common, do not have inflected comparative and superlative forms. Instead, they can be qualified with more and most, as in beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.
Certain adjectives are classed as ungradable. These represent properties that cannot be compared on a scale; they simply apply or do not, as with pregnant, dead, unique. Consequently, comparative and superlative forms of such adjectives are not normally used, except in a figurative, humorous or imprecise context. Similarly, such adjectives are not normally qualified with modifiers of degree such as very and fairly, although with some of them it is idiomatic to use adverbs such as completely. Another type of adjectives sometimes considered ungradable is those that represent an extreme degree of some property, such as delicious and terrified.

Phrases

An adjective phrase is a group of words that plays the role of an adjective in a sentence. It usually has a single adjective as its head, to which modifiers and complements may be added.
Adjectives can be modified by a preceding adverb or adverb phrase, as in very warm, truly imposing, more than a little excited. Some can also be preceded by a noun or quantitative phrase, as in fat-free, two-metre-long.
Complements following the adjective may include:
An adjective phrase may include both modifiers before the adjective and a complement after it, as in very difficult to put away.
Adjective phrases containing complements after the adjective cannot normally be used as attributive adjectives before a noun. Sometimes they are used attributively after the noun, as in a woman proud of being a midwife, but it is wrong to say *a proud of being a midwife woman. Exceptions include very brief and often established phrases such as easy-to-use.
Certain attributive adjective phrases are formed from other parts of speech, without any adjective as their head, as in a two-bedroom house, a no-jeans policy.

Adverbs

s perform a wide range of functions. They typically modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. However, adverbs also sometimes qualify noun phrases, pronouns and determiners, prepositional phrases, or whole sentences, to provide contextual comment or indicate an attitude. They can also indicate a relationship between clauses or sentences.
Many English adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the ending -ly, as in hopefully, widely, theoretically. Certain words can be used as both adjectives and adverbs, such as fast, straight, and hard; these are flat adverbs. In earlier usage more flat adverbs were accepted in formal usage; many of these survive in idioms and colloquially. Some adjectives can also be used as flat adverbs when they actually describe the subject. The adverb corresponding to the adjective good is well.
There are also many adverbs that are not derived from adjectives, including adverbs of time, of frequency, of place, of degree and with other meanings. Some suffixes that are commonly used to form adverbs from nouns are -ward and -wise.
Most adverbs form comparatives and superlatives by modification with more and most: often, more often, most often; smoothly, more smoothly, most smoothly. However, a few adverbs retain irregular inflection for comparative and superlative forms: much, more, most; a little, less, least; well, better, best; badly, worse, worst; far, further, furthest ; or follow the regular adjectival inflection: fast, faster, fastest; soon, sooner, soonest; etc.
Adverbs indicating the manner of an action are generally placed after the verb and its objects, although other positions are often possible. Many adverbs of frequency, degree, certainty, etc. tend to be placed before the verb, although if there is an auxiliary or other "special verb", then the normal position for such adverbs is after that special verb : I have just finished the crossword; She can usually manage a pint; We are never late; You might possibly have been unconscious. Adverbs that provide a connection with previous information, and those that provide the context for a sentence, are typically placed at the start of the sentence: Yesterday we went on a shopping expedition.
A special type of adverb is the adverbial particle used to form phrasal verbs If such a verb also has an object, then the particle may precede or follow the object, although it will normally follow the object if the object is a pronoun.

Phrases

An adverb phrase is a phrase that acts as an adverb within a sentence. An adverb phrase may have an adverb as its head, together with any modifiers and complements, analogously to the adjective phrases described above. For example: very sleepily; all too suddenly; oddly enough; perhaps shockingly for us.
Another very common type of adverb phrase is the prepositional phrase, which consists of a preposition and its object: in the pool; after two years; for the sake of harmony.

Prepositions

s form a closed word class, although there are also certain phrases that serve as prepositions, such as in front of. A single preposition may have a variety of meanings, often including temporal, spatial and abstract. Many words that are prepositions can also serve as adverbs. Examples of common English prepositions are of, in, on, over, under, to, from, with, in front of, behind, opposite, by, before, after, during, through, in spite of or despite, between, among, etc.
A preposition is usually used with a noun phrase as its complement. A preposition together with its complement is called a prepositional phrase. Examples are in England, under the table, after six pleasant weeks, between the land and the sea. A prepositional phrase can be used as a complement or post-modifier of a noun in a noun phrase, as in the man in the car, the start of the fight; as a complement of a verb or adjective, as in deal with the problem, proud of oneself; or generally as an adverb phrase.
English allows the use of "stranded" prepositions. This can occur in interrogative and relative clauses, where the interrogative or relative pronoun that is the preposition's complement is moved to the start, leaving the preposition in place. This kind of structure is avoided in some kinds of formal English. For example:
Notice that in the second example the relative pronoun that could be omitted.
Stranded prepositions can also arise in passive voice constructions and other uses of passive past participial phrases, where the complement in a prepositional phrase can become zero in the same way that a verb's direct object would: it was looked at; I will be operated on; get your teeth seen to. The same can happen in certain uses of infinitive phrases: he is nice to talk to; this is the page to make copies of.

Conjunctions

s express a variety of logical relations between items, phrases, clauses and sentences. The principal coordinating conjunctions in English are: and, or, but, nor, so, yet, and for. These can be used in many grammatical contexts to link two or more items of equal grammatical status, for example:
There are also correlative conjunctions, where as well as the basic conjunction, an additional element appears before the first of the items being linked. The common correlatives in English are:
Subordinating conjunctions make relations between clauses, making the clause in which they appear into a subordinate clause. Some common subordinating conjunctions in English are:
A subordinating conjunction generally comes at the very start of its clause, although many of them can be preceded by qualifying adverbs, as in probably because..., especially if.... The conjunction that can be omitted after certain verbs, as in she told us she was ready.

Case

Although English has largely lost its case system, personal pronouns still have three morphological cases that are simplified forms of the nominative, objective and genitive cases:
Most English personal pronouns have five forms: the nominative and oblique case forms, the possessive case, which has both a determiner form and a distinct independent form , and a distinct reflexive or intensive form. The interrogative personal pronoun who exhibits the greatest diversity of forms within the modern English pronoun system, having definite nominative, oblique, and genitive forms and equivalently coordinating indefinite forms.
Forms such as I, he, and we are used for the subject, whereas forms such as me, him and us are used for the object.

Declension

Nouns have distinct singular and plural forms; that is, they decline to reflect their grammatical number; consider the difference between book and books. In addition, a few English pronouns have distinct nominative and oblique forms; that is, they decline to reflect their relationship to a verb or preposition, or case. Consider the difference between he and him, as in "He saw it" and "It saw him"; similarly, consider who, which is subjective, and the objective whom.
Further, these pronouns and a few others have distinct possessive forms, such as his and whose. By contrast, nouns have no distinct nominative and objective forms, the two being merged into a single plain case. For example, chair does not change form between "the chair is here" and "I saw the chair". Possession is shown by the clitic -'s attached to a possessive noun phrase, rather than by declension of the noun itself.

Negation

As noted above under, a finite indicative verb is negated by placing the word not after an auxiliary, modal or other "special" verb such as do, can or be. For example, the clause I go is negated with the appearance of the auxiliary do, as I do not go. When the affirmative already uses auxiliary verbs, no other auxiliary verbs are added to negate the clause.
Most combinations of auxiliary verbs etc. with not have contracted forms: don't, can't, isn't, etc. On inversion of subject and verb, the subject may be placed after a contracted negated form: Should he not pay? or Shouldn't he pay?
Other elements, such as noun phrases, adjectives, adverbs, infinitive and participial phrases, etc., can be negated by placing the word not before them: not the right answer, not interesting, not to enter, not noticing the train, etc.
When other negating words such as never, nobody, etc. appear in a sentence, the negating not is omitted : I saw nothing or I didn't see anything, but not *I didn't see nothing. Such negating words generally have corresponding negative polarity items which can appear in a negative context, but are not negative themselves.

Clause and sentence structure

A typical sentence contains one independent clause and possibly one or more dependent clauses, although it is also possible to link together sentences of this form into longer sentences, using coordinating conjunctions. A clause typically contains a subject and a predicate. A dependent clause also normally contains a subordinating conjunction.

Word order

English word order has moved from the Germanic verb-second word order to being almost exclusively subject–verb–object. The combination of SVO order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence, such as he had hoped to try to open it. In most sentences English marks grammatical relations only through word order. The subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it. The Object–subject–verb may on occasion be seen in English, usually in the future tense or used as a contrast with the conjunction "but", such as in the following examples: "Rome I shall see!", "I hate oranges, but apples I'll eat!".

Questions

Like many other Western European languages, English historically allowed questions to be formed by inverting the positions of verb and subject. Modern English permits this only in the case of a small class of verbs, consisting of auxiliaries as well as forms of the copula be. To form a question from a sentence which does not have such an auxiliary or copula present, the auxiliary verb do needs to be inserted, along with inversion of the word order, to form a question. For example:
The above concerns yes-no questions, but inversion also takes place in the same way after other questions, formed with interrogative words such as where, what, how, etc. An exception applies when the interrogative word is the subject or part of the subject, in which case there is no inversion. For example:
Note that inversion does not apply in indirect questions: I wonder where he is. Indirect yes-no questions can be expressed using if or whether as the interrogative word: Ask them whether/if they saw him.
Negative questions are formed similarly; however if the verb undergoing inversion has a contraction with not, then it is possible to invert the subject with this contraction as a whole. For example:
See also.

Dependent clauses

The syntax of a dependent clause is generally the same as that of an independent clause, except that the dependent clause usually begins with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun. In some situations the conjunction or relative pronoun that can be omitted. Another type of dependent clause with no subordinating conjunction is the conditional clause formed by inversion.

Other uses of inversion

The clause structure with inverted subject and verb, used to form questions as described above, is also used in certain types of declarative sentence. This occurs mainly when the sentence begins with an adverbial or other phrase that is essentially negative or contains words such as only, hardly, etc.: Never have I known someone so stupid; Only in France can such food be tasted.
In elliptical sentences, inversion takes place after so as well as after the negative neither: so do I, neither does she.
Inversion can also be used to form conditional clauses, beginning with should, were, or had, in the following ways:
Other similar forms sometimes appear, but are less common. There is also a construction with subjunctive be, as in be he alive or dead.
Use of inversion to express a third-person imperative is now mostly confined to the expression long live X, meaning "let X live long".

Imperatives

In an imperative sentence, there is usually no subject in the independent clause: Go away until I call you. It is possible, however, to include you as the subject for emphasis: You stay away from me.

Elliptical constructions

Many types of elliptical construction are possible in English, resulting in sentences that omit certain redundant elements. Various examples are given in the article on Ellipsis.
Some notable elliptical forms found in English include:
The first published English grammar was a Pamphlet for Grammar of 1586, written by William Bullokar with the stated goal of demonstrating that English was just as rule-based as Latin. Bullokar's grammar was faithfully modeled on William Lily's Latin grammar, Rudimenta Grammatices, used in English schools at that time, having been "prescribed" for them in 1542 by Henry VIII. Bullokar wrote his grammar in English and used a "reformed spelling system" of his own invention; but many English grammars, for much of the century after Bullokar's effort, were written in Latin, especially by authors who were aiming to be scholarly. John Wallis's Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae was the last English grammar written in Latin.
Even as late as the early 19th century, Lindley Murray, the author of one of the most widely used grammars of the day, was having to cite "grammatical authorities" to bolster the claim that grammatical cases in English are different from those in Ancient Greek or Latin.
English parts of speech are based on Latin and Greek parts of speech. Some English grammar rules were adopted from Latin, for example John Dryden is thought to have created the rule no sentences can end in a preposition because Latin cannot end sentences in prepositions. The rule of no split infinitives was adopted from Latin because Latin has no split infinitives.

Grammar books