Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia


Chinese folk religion plays a dynamic role in the lives of the overseas Chinese who have settled in the countries of this geographic region, particularly Burmese Chinese, Singaporean Chinese, Malaysian Chinese, Thai Chinese and Hoa. The Indonesian Chinese, by contrast, were forced to adopt en masse either Buddhism or Christianity in the 1950s and 1960s, abandoning traditional worship, due to Indonesia's religious policies which forbade Chinese traditional religion. Chinese folk religion, the ethnic religion of Han Chinese, "Shenism" was especially coined referring to its Southeast Asian expression; another Southeast Asian name for the religion is the Sanskrit expression Satya Dharma.
The Chinese folk religion of Southeast Asia is markedly typified by the interaction with Malay indigenous religions and the adoption of gods of Hindu derivation, such as Brahma, Ganesha and Hanuman. The philosophical forms of Confucianism and Taoism are followed, and organised forms of the Chinese folk faith, such as the Church of Virtue, Yiguandao and Zhenkongism, have taken significant foothold among Southeast Asian Chinese.
In Singapore about 11% of the total population is Taoist, composed by a 14.4% of the Chinese Singaporeans identifying as Taoists. In Malaysia, around 10% of Chinese Malaysians practice Chinese folk religions, corresponding to around 1% of the whole country population. However, numbers may be significantly larger since many folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" for census purposes. In Indonesia, Taosu Agung Kusumo, leader of the Majelis Agama Tao Indonesia, claims there are 5 million Taoist followers in the country as of 2009.

By country

Indonesia

The Chinese folk religion of the Chinese Indonesians is named "Confucianism" or "Satya Dharma", and Chinese temples are called klenteng or vihara in Indonesian language. It is officially recognised by the government as Agama Khonghucu or religion of Confucius, which was chosen because of the political condition in Indonesia before the end of Suharto rule in 1998, who had forbade Chinese religions and the Chinese were forced to convert to Buddhism or Christianity. The Chinese Indonesians had their culture and religious rights restored only after the fourth president of Indonesia, Abdurrahman Wahid, issued a regulation that recognised "Confucianism" among the legal religions of the country. He said that:
The first precept of Pancasila stipulates belief in the one and only God. The Confucian philosophy is able to fulfill this, for Confucius mentioned only one God in his teaching, the Heaven or Shangdi. The Heaven possess the characteristic of Yuan Heng Li Zhen, or Omnipresent, Omnipotent, Omnibenevolent, Just.
The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!"

Another movement in Indonesia is the Tridharma, syncretising elements of different religions, the Chinese three teachings amongst others. After the fall of Suharto rule it is undergoing a process of systematisation of doctrines and rituals. Tridharma temples always consist of three main rooms: the front room for Tian or God, the middle for the main deity of the temple, the back room for the three teachers and their pantheon: Confucius, Laozi, and Buddha. Several big Chinese population cities like Medan, Batam, Bagansiapiapi and Singkawang has a significant numbers of Chinese folk religion followers aside Buddhist. There are also many Taoist associations in Indonesia.
Some local deities which are not known outside Indonesia includes Tan Hu Cin Jin from Banyuwangi-Bali, Tan Tik Siu from Tulungagung, Tan Oei Ji Sian Seng or Gi Yong Kong from Rembang-Lasem, and Tey Hai Cin Jin whose worshiped on the coastal cities of East and Middle Java.

Malaysia

In Malaysia the Malaysian Chinese constitute a large segment of the population, mostly adherent of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese traditional religion has a relatively significant registered following in the states of Sarawak and Penang. Many other folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" in government surveys. Chinese temples are called tokong in Malaysian language.
The Chinese folk religion was brought for the first time into Malaysia by Chinese emigrants in the 15th century, with small settlements that were established in Melaka by Hokkien traders, but it was not until the 19th century that there was a mass migration of Chinese. They built shrines dedicated to their deities and cemeteries for those who died. The Chinese migration during the tin and gold mining days, which were a result of high demand for these products, prompted the need of temples, for practices and religious rituals.
Social organisations in the Chinese immigrant society were important, where surnames, dialect, locality and trade mattered. The Cantonese, Hokkien, Teochew and Hakka, respectively formed their secret societies, such as the Ghee Hin and Hai San, and they played grassroots government of the Chinese communities.
A prominent cult is that of Tua Pek Kong, and it has incorporated the cult of the Na Tuk Kong of local Malay origin. Other Malay and Thai gods have been incorporated into the pantheon.

Thailand

has a large population of Thai Chinese, people of Chinese or partial Chinese origin. Most of those who follow Buddhism have been integrated into the Theravada Buddhist tradition of the country, with only a negligible minority still practicing Chinese Buddhism. However, many others have retained the Chinese folk religions and Taoism. Despite the large number of followers and temples, and although they are practiced freely, these religions have no state recognition, their temples are not counted as places of worship, and their followers are counted as "Theravada Buddhists" in officially released religious figures. In Thailand, Chinese temples are called sanchao.
Like in other Southeast Asian countries, the Chinese folk religion of Thailand has developed local features, including the worship of local gods. Major Chinese festivals such as the Nian, Zhongqiu and Qingming are widely celebrated especially in Bangkok, Phuket, and other parts of Thailand where there are large Chinese populations.
The Chinese in the city of Phuket are noted for their nine-day vegetarian festival between September and October. During the festive season, devotees will abstain from meat and mortification of the flesh by Chinese mediums are also commonly seen, along with rites devoted to the worship of Tua Pek Kong. Such traditions were developed during the 19th century in Phuket by the local Chinese with influences from Thai culture.

Singapore

Sizeable number of Chinese Singaporeans practice Taoism, which in the city state is used as a synecdoche for broader Chinese folk religion. Taoists in Singapore worship many Deities, that frequently are embodied by historical ancestors and are subject to a complex Taoist hierarchy of veneration. They also worship some deities of common origins, notably the Jade Emperor, Xuan Tian Shang Di, Lord Guan, and Tian Shang Sheng Mu. Other deities that were venerated and frequently keep at home as auspicious images include the Fu, Lu, and Shou. Caishen is also popularly venerated by many Chinese businessmen. However, certain deities are worshipped by a particular dialect group, and may not share a common devotion with other Chinese dialect groups. One interesting example will be Qing Shui Zhu Shi, this particular Deity is mainly worshipped by the Hokkien, particularly from Anxi Clan. Deities from other ethnicity, like Na Tuk Kong or Datuk Keramat are also venerated.
Adherents of Taoism or Chinese Folk Religionists would placed their main altars/shrines inside their living room. This is more often seen among Chinese families, rather than individuals. The main Gods/Deities would be enshrined at the centre of the top altar, and a tablet dedicated to the Guardians of Earth/Dizhushen would be placed at the bottom altar. Ancestral tablets are usually placed beside the statues/images of the main Gods/Deities at the top altar. Often, urn, usually placed with some incense sticks, is placed in front of the Gods/Deities and a separate smaller urn will be placed in front of the ancestral tablet. Oil lamps may also be placed at altars, and fruit or flower offerings are also placed in front of the Gods/Deities as offerings. Some families may also have an altar dedicated to the Kitchen God inside the kitchen.
They will usually installed a small altar/shrine, painted red and gold, with the words "Heaven Official Bestows Blessings" written on it outside the house or simply a small urn filled with ash where incense sticks are placed. This is dedicated to Tian Kong /Jade Emperor and is the first altar that they will worship. After they have worship toward the Heaven representing Tian Kong/Jade Emperor, they will proceed to worship at the main altar to the Gods/Deities, then to the ancestral tablets and eventually to the Guardians of Earth/Dizhushen. The smoke emitted from burning incense sticks symbolize their devotion and prayer, and at times requests, to the Gods/Deities.

Vietnam

Many Hoa people practice Chinese folk religion.

Features

Organised traditions

Some organised sects stemming from Chinese practises have been active among Southeast Asian Chinese. They include especially De jiao, Zhenkong jiao and Yiguandao.

Southeast Asian Chinese pantheon

The names of the gods are in transcribed Mandarin or certain Chinese dialects spoken by Southeast Asian Chinese populations:
Chinese temples in Indonesia and Malaysia are called kelenteng, klenteng, tokong or pekong in local Malay languages, or alternatively bio, the southern Chinese pronunciation of Mandarin miao. In Thailand their name is sanchao. Items for Chinese religious practices in Southeast Asia are supplied at shén liào shāngdiàn.