Translation of Han dynasty titles


The translation of Han dynasty government titles into English varies within the academic community. This page is a reference to compare renderings of Chinese official titles by different sinologists.

History

The first specialist reference for the English renderings of Chinese official titles was written in 1878 by a British legate to the Chinese government in Beijing, William Frederick Mayers. The most common terms used today in translation of official titles date back to Homer H. Dubs's translation of the Book of Han and Book of the Later Han from 1938 to 1955.
Dubs's translation lacked a published glossary of titles, but a list of titles used by Dubs was compiled by Rafe de Crespigny and published in 1967. In the interim, Wang Yuquan published An Outline of the Central Government of the Former Han Dynasty in 1949. The next major systematising work on Han dynasty government was The Bureaucracy of Han Times written by Hans Bielenstein in 1980, drawing upon Dubs's and de Crespigny's work as its major source of translation for titles.
In 1985, Charles Hucker completed his Dictionary of Official Titles of Imperial China, a collection of nearly 8,300 titles and government offices and associated translations for every dynasty from the Zhou to the Qing, the most complete specialist literature of its type. During the 1980s and 1990s another list of proposed translation for Han dynasty titles was circulating in the University of Washington, where Jack Dull headed the Han Dynasty Project. Long after Dull's death, this list was made available as part of his collection of unpublished papers, available online from University of Oregon. Dull's list of Official Titles of the Han Dynasty also mainly follows Dubs.
Two comprehensive biographical dictionaries have also added to these reference aids: Michael Loewe's 2000 Biographical Dictionary of Qin, Former Han, and Xin Periods, and Rafe de Crespigny's 2007 Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms, both published by Brill and intended to complement each other. De Crespigny's translation of titles mainly follow Dubs with some alterations, whereas Loewe's tend to be his own original renderings.
In 2007 Rafe de Crespigny published online a collection of his papers, among them An Outline of the Military Organisation of the Later Han Empire and An Outline of the Civil Administration of the Later Han Empire. Each of these includes an appendix listing a number of titles along with the translation de Crespigny has adopted, which he calls "slightly modified, varying from the system established by H.H. Dubs...".

Schema for Han dynasty titles

The Dubs school

The Dubs school of title translation has the longest pedigree of any schema for title translation and has broad acceptance in the scholarly community, but it was not built on any unifying principles and changed erratically during Dubs's lifetime. It is now mainly represented by the works of Bielenstein, de Crespigny, and Dull, all of whom made their own minor alterations while trying to remain mostly in the Dubs framework.
Wang Yuquan's 1949 article, although based entirely on primary source materials, seems to draw inspiration for translation of titles from Dubs in places, and can be considered to be completely superseded by later works. It was a source for Bielenstein, who called it "out of date". Bielenstein remains the academic standard which all others attempt to improve but compare themselves against for context. Dull's work, unpublished until it was released freely on the web in 2010, has been ignored by academia. De Crespigny has gone further outside the Dubs mold than the other authors.
In a 1971 review of de Crespigny's 1969 translation of part of the Zizhi Tongjian, Han dynasty specialist Anthony Hulsewé impugned the renderings of Chinese official titles, which then much more closely followed Dubs, as "barbarized" and "abhorrent".

The Hucker system

Hucker's system has, in the main, not been adopted by the scholarly community. Its strengths are that it was created with a goal of systematisation and universality, and built upon sound principles of translation: that the rendering should ideally convey both the sense of the responsibilities of the office and the literal Chinese meaning, that it should avoid too-familiar Western analogues likely to create false impressions, and that it should not rely on bizarre-sounding neologisms. Hucker drew from a great deal of references during his research, including the work of Bielenstein, and received input from a large number of Chinese scholars, including de Crespigny and Dull.
In An Outline of the Civil Administration of the Later Han Empire, Rafe de Crespigny rejects outright Hucker's system, claiming he found Hucker's renderings to be unreliable and unacceptable for the Han period.

Loewe

The titles adopted by Loewe in his Biographical Dictionary largely follow the translations as they appeared in The Cambridge History of China, volume 1, which Loewe helped to edit. He shies away from more literal translations, opting instead for renderings which "indicate an official's responsibilities, or his place in the organs of government, where possible in immediately meaningful terms; and in so far as imperial offices were organised in a hierarchical basis, it has been thought advisable to choose terms which convey an official's degree of seniority." Loewe appends a table comparing the renderings he adopts to those used by "Dubs, Bielenstein, and de Crespigny", acknowledging their grouping as a single school and that school's sinological primacy.

Difficulties

Several difficulties exist in providing a unified one-to-one translation for Han dynasty titles, these may range from each scholar's personal preferences to more profound issues.
One main point of contention is whether the translation should follow the literal meaning of the title or to describe the roles of that title's holder. As the Chinese bureaucracy developed, the responsibilities of an office changed and the names of positions changed, not necessarily at the same time. An office from the Zhou dynasty might share the same title as an office from the Qing dynasty, but with completely different powers, scope, and responsibilities.
Not every scholar covers every era. While Hucker's system is meant to detail government offices since the Zhou dynasty, the Dubs School focuses on the Han dynasty, and to a lesser extent the Qin dynasty and Three Kingdoms period. De Crespigny is an expert on the Later Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms; Loewe is an expert on the Former Han and Xin dynasties. A valid translation for one dynasty may not be valid for another.

Comparisons

Here is a table of comparisons between Han dynasty Chinese official titles and five sources of renderings, ordered by pinyin.
PinyinChineseBielensteinDullde CrespignyHuckerLoewe
Biejia 別駕Aide-de-camp AttendantAttendant OfficerMounted Escort
Boshi 博士EruditEruditeAcademicianEruditeAcademician
Cheng 丞AssistantAssistantAssistantAide
Chengxiang 丞相ChancellorImperial ChancellorImperial ChancellorCounselor-in-ChiefChancellor
Chengmen Xiaowei 城門校尉Colonel of the City GatesColonel of the City GatesColonel of the City GatesCommandant of the Capital GatesColonel of the City Gates
Cishi 刺史InspectorInspectorInspectorRegional InspectorRegional Inspector
Congshi 從事Attendant ClerkAttendant OfficialAssistant OfficerRetainer
Dafu 大夫GrandeeGrandeeCounsellorGrand MasterCounsellor
Da Honglu 大鴻臚Grand HeraldGrand HeraldMinister HeraldChamberlain for DependenciesSuperintendent of State Visits
Da Jiangjun 大將軍General-in-chiefGrand GeneralGeneral-in-ChiefGeneral-in-ChiefGeneral-in-Chief
Da Li 大理Grand JudgeGrand Judgetitle unused after XinChamberlain for Law EnforcementSuperintendent of Trials
Da Sima 大司馬Commander-in-chiefGrand Minister of WarGrand MarshalCommander-in-ChiefMarshal of State
Da Sinong 大司農Grand Minister of AgricultureGrand Minister of AgricultureMinister of FinanceChamberlain for the National TreasurySuperintendent of Agriculture
Da Xingling 大行令Prefect Grand UsherPrefect of the Grand March; Grand Ushertitle unused after Emperor WuDirector of MessengersSuperintendent of State Visits
Dian Ke 典客Director of GuestsDirector of Gueststitle unused after Emperor JingChamberlain for DependenciesSuperintendent of State Visits
Dian Shuguo 典屬國Director of Dependent StatesDirector of Dependent Statestitle unused after Emperor ChengSupervisor of Dependent CountriesDirector of the Dependent States
Duwei 都尉Chief CommandantChief CommandantCommandantCommandant; Defender
Duyou 督郵InvestigatorInvestigator of TransgressionsInvestigatorLocal InspectorInvestigator
Fengchang 奉常Upholder of CeremoniesMinister of Imperial Ancestral Ceremoniestitle unused after Emperor WuChamberlain for CeremonialsSuperintendent of Ceremonial
Fengju Duwei 奉車都尉Chief Commandant of Imperial EquipagesChief Commandant Custodian of the Imperial EquipagesCommandant of the EquipageCommandant-in-Chief of ChariotsCommandant, Imperial Carriages
Fujie Ling 符節令Prefect of Insignia and CredentialsPrefect of Tallies and CredentialsPrefect of Insignia and CredentialsManager of CredentialsDirector, Insignia and Credentials
Gongcao 功曹Bureau of MeritMerit EvaluatorOfficer of MeritLabor Section ServicemanOfficer of the Bureau of Merit
Gongju Ling 公車令Prefect of the Majors in Charge of Official CarriagesPrefect of Official Carriage's at the Major's GatePrefect of the Majors for Official CarriagesDirector of Gate Traffic ControlDirector of Official Carriages
Guanglu Dafu 光祿大夫Imperial Household GrandeeImperial Court GrandeeHousehold CounsellorGrand Master for Splendid HappinessCounsellor of the Palace
Guangluxun 光祿勳Superintendent of the Imperial HouseholdSuperintendent of the Imperial CourtMinister of the HouseholdChamberlain for AttendantsSuperintendent of the Palace
Huben 虎賁Rapid as Tigers imperial guardRapid as Tigers imperial guardRapid as Tigers imperial guardBrave as Tigers palace guard
Huangmen Shilang 黃門侍郎Gentleman-in-Attendance of the Yellow GatesAttendant Gentleman at the Yellow GateGentleman at the Yellow GatesGentleman Attendant at the Palace GateGentleman in Attendance at the Yellow Gates
Ji Duwei 騎都尉Chief Commandant of CavalryCommandant of CavalryCommandant of CavalryCommandant of CavalryCommandant, Cavalry
Jijiu 祭酒LibationerLibationerLibationerLibationer; Chancellor of the National UniversityLibationer
Jianyi Dafu 諫議大夫Grandee Remonstrant and ConsultantGrandee Remonstrant and ConsultantCounsellor RemonstrantGrand Master of RemonstranceAdvisory Counsellor
Jiangzuo Dajiang 將作大匠Court ArchitectGrand Court ArchitectCourt ArchitectChamberlain for the Palace BuildingsCourt Architect
Jiu Qing 九卿Nine MinistersNine MinistersNine MinistersNine ChamberlainsNine Ministers of State
Ling 令PrefectPrefectCounty magistrateDirectorMagistrate
Mu 牧ShepherdShepherdGovernorRegional GovernorRegional Commissioner
Puye 僕射SupervisorSupervisorDeputy DirectorSupervisor; Chief AdministratorSupervisor
San Gong 三公Three ExcellenciesThree Ducal MinistersThree ExcellenciesThree Dukes
Shangshu 尚書Master of WritingMinister of WritingImperial SecretariatChief Steward for Writing ; Imperial Secretary Secretariat
Shaofu 少府Privy TreasurerPrivy TreasurerMinister of the Privy Treasury; Minister StewardChamberlain of the Palace RevenuesSuperintendent of the Lesser Treasury
Shi Yushi 侍御史Attending SecretaryAttendant Imperial SecretaryImperial ClerkAttendant CensorSecretary in Attendance on the Imperial Counsellor
Shizhong 侍中Palace AttendantPalace AttendantPalace AttendantPalace AttendantPalace Attendant
Shuiheng Duwei 水衡都尉Chief Commandant of Waters and ParksChief Commandant of Water and Parkstitle unused after XinCommandant of the Imperial GardensSuperintendent of Waterways and Parks
Sikong 司空Minister of WorksMinister of WorksExcellency of WorksMinister of WorksImperial Counsellor
Sili Xiaowei 司隸校尉Colonel Director of the RetainersColonel-Director of the RetainersDirector of RetainersMetropolitan CommandantColonel, Internal Security
Sima 司馬MajorMajorMajorCommanderMajor
Situ 司徒Minister over the MassesMinister of the MassesExcellency over the MassesMinister of EducationChancellor
Taichang 太常Grand Master of CeremoniesGrand Minister of CeremoniesMinister of CeremoniesChamberlain of CeremonialsSuperintendent of Ceremonial
Taifu 太傅Grand TutorGrand TutorGrand TutorGrand MentorSenior Tutor
Taiguan 太官Prefect Grand ProvisionerGrand ProvisionerCourt ProvisionerProvisioner
Taipu 太僕Grand CoachmanGrand Keeper of EquipagesMinister CoachmanChamberlain for the Imperial StudSuperintendent of Transport
Taishi Ling 太史令Prefect Grand AstrologerPrefect of the Grand ClerksCourt AstronomerGrand AstrologerDirector, Astronomy
Taishou 太守Grand AdministratorGrand AdministratorAdministratorGovernor; Grand ProtectorGovernor
Taiwei 太尉Grand CommandantGrand CommandantGrand CommandantDefender-in-ChiefSupreme Commander
Taixue 太學AcademyImperial University; Grand CollegeImperial UniversityNational University
Taiyi Ling 太醫令Prefect Grand PhysicianPrefect of the Grand PhysiciansCourt PhysicianImperial PhysicianDirector of the Physicians-in-Chief
Taizhong Dafu 太中大夫Grand Palace GrandeeGrand Palace GrandeePalace CounsellorSuperior Grand Master of the PalaceGrand Counsellor of the Palace
Taizi Shaofu 太子少傅Junior Tutor of the Heir-apparentJunior Tutor of the Heir Apparent; Lesser Tutor of the Heir ApparentJunior Mentor of the Heir ApparentJunior Tutor to the Heir Apparent
Taizi Taifu 太子太傅Grand Tutor of the Heir-apparentGrand Tutor of the Heir ApparentGrand Tutor of the Heir ApparentGrand Mentor of the Heir ApparentSenior Tutor to the Heir Apparent
Tingwei 廷尉Commandant of JusticeCommandant of JusticeMinister of JusticeChamberlain for Law EnforcementSuperintendent of Trials
Weishi Ling 衛士令Prefect of the GuardsPrefect of the GuardsPrefect of the GuardsDirector of the Guardsmen
Weiwei 衛尉Commandant of the GuardsCommanant of the GuardsMinister of the GuardsChamberlain for the Palace GarrisonSuperintendent of the Guards
Wu guan Zhonglang Jiang 五官中郎將General of the Gentlemen-of-the-Household for All PurposesGeneral of the Palace Gentlemen of the Five OfficesGeneral of the Household for All PurposesLeader of the Court Gentlemen for Miscellaneous UsesLeader of the Gentlemen of the Palace, all purposes
Xianling 縣令PrefectPrefectPrefectDistrict MagistrateCounty Magistrate
Xianzhang 縣長ChiefChiefCounty MagistrateDistrict MagistrateCounty Magistrate
Xiangguo 相國Chancellor of StateChancellor of StateChancellor of StateCounselor-in-ChiefChancellor of State
Xiaowei 校尉ColonelColonelColonelCommandantColonel
Yezhe 謁者InternuncioInternuncioInternuncioReceptionistImperial Messenger
Yilang 議郎Gentleman ConsultantGentleman-ConsultantConsultantCourt Gentleman for ConsultationGentleman Consultant
Yin 尹GovernorGovernorIntendantGovernorGovernor
You Zhonglang Jiang 右中郎將General of the Gentlemen-of-the-Household of the RightGeneral of the Palace Gentlemen of the RightGeneral of the Household of the RightLeader of Court Gentlemen of the RightLeader of the Gentlemen of the Palace of the Right
Yulin 羽林Feathered Forest imperial guardsThe Forest of Feathers guardsFeathered Forest imperial guardPalace GuardElite Yulin Corps
Yushi Dafu 御史大夫Grandee SecretaryGrandee SecretaryImperial CounsellorCensor-in-ChiefImperial Counsellor
Yushi Zhongcheng 御史中丞Palace Assistant SecretaryPalace Assistant Imperial SecretaryPalace Assistant Imperial ClerkPalace Aide to the Censor-in-ChiefAssistant to the Imperial Counsellor
Zhangshi 長史Chief ClerkChief ClerkChief ClerkAideChief clerk
Zheng 正DirectorDirectorDirectorDirector; Supervisor; Head
Zhijinwu 執金吾Bearer of the Gilded MaceChief of PoliceBearer of the MaceChamberlain for the Imperial InsigniaSuperintendent of the Capital
Zhi su Neishi 治粟內史Clerk of the Capital for GrainClerk of the Capital for Supplies; Secretary of the Interiortitle unused after Emperor WuChamberlain for the National TreasurySuperintendent of Agriculture
Zhonglang Jiang 中郎將General of the Gentlemen-of-the-HouseholdGeneral of the Palace GentlemenGeneral of the HouseholdLeader of Court GentlemenLeader of the Gentlemen of the Palace
Zhongsan Dafu 中散大夫Palace Attendant GrandeePalace Grandee Without Specified AppointmentAttendant CounsellorGrand Master of Palace Leisure
Zhongshu 中書Palace WriterPalace WriterPalace SecretaryPalace Writer
Zhongshu Guan 中書官Eunuch Palace Writer
Zhongwei 中尉Commandant of the CapitalCommandant of the CapitalCommandant of the CapitalChamberlain for the Imperial InsigniaSuperindendant of the Capital
Zhubu 主簿Master of RecordsMaster of DocumentsRegistrarRecorderRegistrar
Zongzheng 宗正Director of the Imperial ClanSuperintendent of the Imperial ClanMinister of the Imperial ClanChamberlain for the Imperial ClanSuperintendent of the Imperial Clan
Zuo Zhonglang Jiang 左中郎將General of the Gentlemen-of-the-Household of the LeftGeneral of the Palace Gentlemen of the LeftGeneral of the Household of the LeftLeader of Court Gentlemen of the LeftLeader of the Gentlemen of the Palace of the Left

Citations