Tinbergen's four questions


Tinbergen's four questions, named after Nikolaas Tinbergen, are complementary categories of explanations for animal behaviour. These are also commonly referred to as levels of analysis. It suggests that an integrative understanding of behaviour must include: ultimate explanations, in particular the behaviour adaptive function and phylogenetic history; and the proximate explanations, in particular the behaviour underlying mechanisms and ontogenetic/developmental history.

Four categories of questions and explanations

When asked about the purpose of sight in humans and animals, even elementary-school children can answer that animals have vision to help them find food and avoid danger. Biologists have three additional explanations: sight is caused by a particular series of evolutionary steps, the mechanics of the eye, and even the process of an individual's development.
This schema constitutes a basic framework of the overlapping behavioural fields of ethology, behavioural ecology, comparative psychology, sociobiology, evolutionary psychology, and anthropology. It was in fact Julian Huxley who identified the first three questions, Niko Tinbergen gave only the fourth question, but Julian Huxley's questions failed to distinguish between survival value and evolutionary history, so Tinbergen's fourth question helped resolve this problem.

Table of categories

Evolutionary (ultimate) explanations

1 Function (adaptation)

Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is the only scientific explanation for why an animal's behaviour is usually well adapted for survival and reproduction in its environment. However, claiming that a particular mechanism is well suited to the present environment is different from claiming that this mechanism was selected for in the past due to its history of being adaptive. The literature conceptualizes the relationship between function and evolution in two ways. On the one hand, function and evolution are often presented as separate and distinct explanations of behaviour.
On the other hand, the common definition of adaptation, a central concept in evolution, is a trait that was functional to the reproductive success of the organism and that is thus now present due to being selected for; that is, function and evolution are inseparable. However a trait can have a current function that is adaptive without being an adaptation in this sense, if for instance the environment has changed. Imagine an environment in which having a small body suddenly conferred benefit on an organism when previously body size had had no effect on survival.
A small body's function in the environment would then be adaptive, but it wouldn't become an adaptation until enough generations had passed in which small bodies were advantageous to reproduction for small bodies to be selected for. Given this, it is best to understand that presently functional traits might not all have been produced by natural selection. The term "function" is preferable to "adaptation", because adaptation is often construed as implying that it was selected for due to past function.
It corresponds to Aristotle's final cause.

2 Phylogeny (evolution)

Evolution captures both the history of an organism via its phylogeny, and the history of natural selection working on function to produce adaptations. There are several reasons why natural selection may fail to achieve optimal design. One entails random processes such as mutation and environmental events acting on small populations. Another entails the constraints resulting from early evolutionary development. Each organism harbors traits, both anatomical and behavioural, of previous phylogenetic stages, since many traits are retained as species evolve.
Reconstructing the phylogeny of a species often makes it possible to understand the "uniqueness" of recent characteristics: Earlier phylogenetic stages and conditions which persist often also determine the form of more modern characteristics. For instance, the vertebrate eye has a blind spot, whereas octopus eyes do not. In those two lineages, the eye was originally constructed one way or the other. Once the vertebrate eye was constructed, there were no intermediate forms that were both adaptive and would have enabled it to evolve without a blind spot.
It corresponds to Aristotle's formal cause.

Proximate explanations

3 Mechanism (causation)

Some prominent classes of Proximate causal mechanisms include:
In examining living organisms, biologists are confronted with diverse levels of complexity. They therefore investigate causal and functional relations within and between these levels. A biochemist might examine, for instance, the influence of social and ecological conditions on the release of certain neurotransmitters and hormones, and the effects of such releases on behaviour, e.g. stress during birth has a tocolytic effect.
However, awareness of neurotransmitters and the structure of neurons is not by itself enough to understand higher levels of neuroanatomic structure or behaviour: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts." All levels must be considered as being equally important: cf. transdisciplinarity, Nicolai Hartmann's "Laws about the Levels of Complexity."
It corresponds to Aristotle's efficient cause.

4 [Ontogeny] (development)

In the latter half of the twentieth century, social scientists debated whether human behaviour was the product of nature or nurture.
An example of interaction involves familiarity from childhood. In a number of species, individuals prefer to associate with familiar individuals but prefer to mate with unfamiliar ones. By inference, genes affecting living together interact with the environment differently from genes affecting mating behaviour. A homely example of interaction involves plants: Some plants grow toward the light and some away from gravity.
Many forms of developmental learning have a critical period, for instance, for imprinting among geese and language acquisition among humans. In such cases, genes determine the timing of the environmental impact.
A related concept is labeled "biased learning" and "prepared learning". For instance, after eating food that subsequently made them sick, rats are predisposed to associate that food with smell, not sound. Many primate species learn to fear snakes with little experience.
See developmental biology and developmental psychology.
It corresponds to Aristotle's material cause.

Causal relationships

The figure shows the causal relationships among the categories of explanations. The left-hand side represents the evolutionary explanations at the species level; the right-hand side represents the proximate explanations at the individual level. In the middle are those processes' end products—genes and behaviour, both of which can be analyzed at both levels.
Evolution, which is determined by both function and phylogeny, results in the genes of a population. The genes of an individual interact with its developmental environment, resulting in mechanisms, such as a nervous system. A mechanism interacts with the individual's immediate environment, resulting in its behaviour.
Here we return to the population level. Over many generations, the success of the species' behaviour in its ancestral environment—or more technically, the environment of evolutionary adaptedness may result in evolution as measured by a change in its genes.
In sum, there are two processes—one at the population level and one at the individual level—which are influenced by environments in three time periods.

Examples

Vision

Four ways of explaining visual perception:
Four ways of explaining the Westermarck effect, the lack of sexual interest in one's siblings :
, Julian Huxley and Niko Tinbergen were familiar with both conceptual categories, the tabulation was made by Gerhard Medicus. The tabulated schema is used as the central organizing device in many animal behaviour, ethology, behavioural ecology and evolutionary psychology textbooks . One advantage of this organizational system, what might be called the "periodic table of life sciences," is that it highlights gaps in knowledge, analogous to the role played by the periodic table of elements in the early years of chemistry.
1. Mechanism2. Ontogeny3. Function4. Phylogeny
a. Molecule
b. Cell
c. Organ
d. Individual
e. Family
f. Group
g. Society

This "biopsychosocial" framework clarifies and classifies the associations between the various levels of the natural and social sciences, and it helps to integrate the social and natural sciences into a "tree of knowledge". Especially for the social sciences, this model helps to provide an integrative, foundational model for interdisciplinary collaboration, teaching and research.

Diagrams