Stark effect
The Stark effect is the shifting and splitting of spectral lines of atoms and molecules due to the presence of an external electric field. It is the electric-field analogue of the Zeeman effect, where a spectral line is split into several components due to the presence of the magnetic field. Although initially coined for the static case, it is also used in the wider context to describe the effect of time-dependent electric fields. In particular, the Stark effect is responsible for the pressure broadening of spectral lines by charged particles in plasmas. For most spectral lines, the Stark effect is either linear or quadratic with a high accuracy.
The Stark effect can be observed both for emission and absorption lines. The latter is sometimes called the inverse Stark effect, but this term is no longer used in the modern literature.
energy level spectra of lithium in an electric field near n = 15 for m = 0. Note that energy levels cannot cross due to the ionic core breaking symmetries of dynamical motion.
History
The effect is named after the German physicist Johannes Stark, who discovered it in 1913. It was independently discovered in the same year by the Italian physicist Antonino Lo Surdo, and in Italy it is thus sometimes called the Stark–Lo Surdo effect. The discovery of this effect contributed importantly to the development of quantum theory and was rewarded with the Nobel Prize in Physics for Johannes Stark in the year 1919.Inspired by the magnetic Zeeman effect, and especially by Lorentz's explanation of it, Woldemar Voigt performed classical mechanical calculations of quasi-elastically bound electrons in an electric field. By using experimental indices of refraction he gave an estimate of the Stark splittings. This estimate was a few orders of magnitude too low. Not deterred by this prediction, Stark undertook measurements on excited states of the hydrogen atom and succeeded in observing splittings.
By the use of the Bohr–Sommerfeld quantum theory, Paul Epstein and Karl Schwarzschild were independently able to derive equations for the linear and quadratic Stark effect in hydrogen. Four years later, Hendrik Kramers derived formulas for intensities of spectral transitions. Kramers also included the effect of fine structure, which includes corrections for relativistic kinetic energy and coupling between electron spin and orbital motion. The first quantum mechanical treatment was by Wolfgang Pauli. Erwin Schrödinger discussed at length the Stark effect in his third paper on quantum theory, once in the manner of the 1916 work of Epstein and once by his perturbation approach.
Finally, Epstein reconsidered the linear and quadratic Stark effect from the point of view of the new quantum theory. He derived equations for the line intensities which were a decided improvement over Kramers' results obtained by the old quantum theory.
While first-order perturbation effects for the Stark effect in hydrogen are in agreement for the Bohr–Sommerfeld model and the quantum-mechanical theory of the atom, higher-order effects are not. Measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths confirmed the correctness of the quantum theory over the Bohr model.
Mechanism
Overview
An electric field pointing from left to right, for example, tends to pull nuclei to the right and electrons to the left. In another way of viewing it, if an electronic state has its electron disproportionately to the left, its energy is lowered, while if it has the electron disproportionately to the right, its energy is raised.Other things being equal, the effect of the electric field is greater for outer electron shells, because the electron is more distant from the nucleus, so it travels farther left and farther right.
The Stark effect can lead to splitting of degenerate energy levels. For example, in the Bohr model, an electron has the same energy whether it is in the 2s state or any of the 2p states. However, in an electric field, there will be hybrid orbitals of the 2s and 2p states where the electron tends to be to the left, which will acquire a lower energy, and other hybrid orbitals where the electron tends to be to the right, which will acquire a higher energy. Therefore, the formerly degenerate energy levels will split into slightly lower and slightly higher energy levels.
Classical electrostatics
The Stark effect originates from the interaction between a charge distribution and an external electric field. Before turning to quantum mechanics we describe the interactionclassically and consider a continuous charge distribution ρ.
If this charge distribution is non-polarizable its interaction energy with an external electrostatic potential V is
If the electric field is of macroscopic origin and the charge distribution is microscopic, it is reasonable to assume that the electric field is uniform over the charge distribution. That is, V is given by a two-term Taylor expansion,
where we took the origin 0 somewhere within ρ.
Setting V as the zero energy, the interaction becomes
Here we have introduced the dipole moment μ of ρ as an integral over the charge distribution. In case ρ consists of N point charges qj this definition becomes a sum
Perturbation theory
Electric-field perturbation applied to a classical hydrogen atom produces a distortion of the electron orbit in a direction perpendicular to the applied field. This effect can be shown without perturbation theory using the relation between the angular momentum and the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector. Using the Laplace-Runge-Lenz approach, one can see both the transverse distortion and the usual Stark effect. The transverse distortion is not mentioned in most textbooks. This approach can also lead to an exactly solvable approximate model Hamiltonian for an atom in a strong oscillatory field. “There are few exactly-solvable problems in quantum mechanics, and even fewer with a time-dependent Hamiltonian.”Turning now to quantum mechanics an atom or a molecule can be thought of as a collection of point charges, so that the second definition of the dipole applies. The interaction of atom or molecule with a uniform external field is described by the operator
This operator is used as a perturbation in first- and second-order perturbation theory to account for the first- and second-order Stark effect.
First order
Let the unperturbed atom or molecule be in a g-fold degenerate state with orthonormal zeroth-order state functions.. According to perturbation theory the first-order energies are the eigenvalues of the g x g matrix with general elementIf g = 1 the first-order energy becomes proportional to the expectation value of the dipole operator,
Because a dipole moment is a polar vector, the diagonal elements of the perturbation matrix Vint vanish for systems with an inversion center. Molecules with an inversion center in a non-degenerate electronic state do not have a dipole and hence do not show a linear Stark effect.
In order to obtain a non-zero matrix Vint for systems with an inversion center it is necessary that some of the unperturbed functions have opposite parity, because only functions of opposite parity give non-vanishing matrix elements. Degenerate zeroth-order states of opposite parity occur for excited hydrogen-like atoms or Rydberg states. Neglecting fine-structure effects, such a state with the principal quantum number n is n2-fold degenerate and
where is the azimuthal quantum number. For instance, the excited n = 4 state contains the following states,
The one-electron states with even are even under parity, while those with odd are odd under parity. Hence hydrogen-like atoms with n>1 show first-order Stark effect.
The first-order Stark effect occurs in rotational transitions of symmetric top molecules. In first approximation a molecule may be seen as a rigid rotor. A symmetric top rigid rotor has the unperturbed eigenstates
with 2-fold degenerate energy for |K| > 0 and -fold degenerate energy for K=0.
Here DJMK is an element of the Wigner D-matrix. The first-order perturbation matrix on basis of the unperturbed rigid rotor function is non-zero and can be diagonalized. This gives shifts and splittings
in the rotational spectrum. Quantitative analysis of these Stark shift yields the permanent electric dipole moment of the symmetric top molecule.
Second order
As stated, the quadratic Stark effect is described by second-order perturbation theory.The zeroth-order eigenproblem
is assumed to be solved. The perturbation theory gives
with the components of the polarizability tensor α defined by
The energy E gives the quadratic Stark effect.
Neglecting the hyperfine structure, the polarizability tensor of atoms is isotropic,
For some molecules this expression is a reasonable approximation, too.
It is important to note that for the ground state is always positive, i.e., the quadratic Stark shift is always negative.
Problems
The perturbative treatment of the Stark effect has some problems. In the presence of an electric field, states of atoms and molecules that were previously bound, become formally resonances of finite width.These resonances may decay in finite time via field ionization. For low lying states and not too strong fields the decay times are so long, however, that for all practical purposes the system can be regarded as bound. For highly excited states and/or very strong fields ionization may have to be accounted for..