Songhay languages


The Songhay or Songhai languages are a group of closely related languages/dialects centred on the middle stretches of the Niger River in the West African countries of Mali, Niger, Benin, Burkina Faso and Nigeria. In particular, they are spoken in the cities of Timbuktu and Gao. They have been widely used as a lingua franca in that region ever since the era of the Songhai Empire. In Mali, the government has officially adopted the dialect of Gao as the dialect to be used as a medium of primary education.
Some Songhay languages have little to no mutual intelligibility between each other. For example, Koyraboro Senni, spoken in Gao, is unintelligible to speakers of Zarma in Niger, according to Ethnologue. However, Songhay, Zarma, and Dendi have high mutual intelligibility within Niger.
For linguists, a major point of interest in the Songhay languages has been the difficulty of determining their genetic affiliation; they are commonly taken to be Nilo-Saharan, as defined by Joseph Greenberg in 1963, but this classification remains controversial. Linguist Gerrit Dimmendaal believes that for now it is best considered an independent language family. Roger Blench argues that the Songhay and Saharan languages form a Songhay-Saharan branch with each other within the wider Nilo-Saharan linguistic phylum.
Historically, the name Songhay was neither an ethnic nor a linguistic designation, but a name for the ruling caste of the Songhai Empire. Under the influence of French language usage, speakers in Mali have increasingly been adopting it as an ethnic self-designation; however, other Songhay-speaking groups identify themselves with other ethnic terms, such as Zarma or Isawaghen.
A few precolonial poems and letters composed in Songhay and written in the Arabic script exist in Timbuktu. However, Songhay is currently written in the Latin script.

Varieties

Researchers classify the Songhay languages into two main branches; Southern and Northern. Southern Songhay is centered on the Niger River. Zarma, the most widely spoken Songhay language with two or three million speakers, is a major language of southwestern Niger including in the capital city, Niamey. Koyraboro Senni, with 400,000 speakers, is the language of the town of Gao, the seat of the old Songhai Empire. Koyra Chiini is spoken to its west. The much smaller Northern Songhay is a group of heavily Berber-influenced dialects spoken in the Sahara. Since the Berber influence extends beyond the lexicon into the inflectional morphology, the Northern Songhay languages are sometimes viewed as mixed languages.

Genetic affiliation

, a missionary and linguist, hesitated between assigning it to Gur or considering it an isolate, and Maurice Delafosse grouped it with Mande. At present, Songhay is normally considered to be Nilo-Saharan, following Joseph Greenberg's 1963 reclassification of African languages; Greenberg's argument is based on about 70 claimed cognates, including pronouns. This proposal has been developed further by, in particular, Lionel Bender, who sees it as an independent subfamily of Nilo-Saharan. Roger Blench notes that Songhay shares the defining singulative–plurative morphology typical of Nilo-Saharan languages. As of 2011, he believes that Songhay is closest to the neighboring Saharan languages and is not divergent.
However, a Nilo-Saharan classification is controversial. Greenberg's argument was subjected to serious criticism by Lacroix, who deemed only about 30 of Greenberg's claimed cognates acceptable, and moreover argued that these held mainly between Zarma and the Saharan languages, thus leading one to suspect them of being loanwords. Certain Songhay–Mande similarities have long been observed, and Mukarovsky, Denis Creissels and Nicolaï investigated the possibility of a Mande relationship; Creissels made some 50 comparisons, including many body parts and morphological suffixes, while Nicolaï claimed some 450 similar words as well as some conspicuous typological traits. However, Nicolaï eventually concluded that this approach was not adequate, and in 1990 proposed a distinctly novel hypothesis: that Songhay is a Berber-based creole language, restructured under Mande influence. In support of this he proposed 412 similarities, ranging all the way from basic vocabulary to obvious borrowings Others, such as Gerrit Dimmendaal, were not convinced, and Nicolaï appears to consider the question of Songhay's origins still open, while arguing against Bender's proposed etymologies.
Greenberg's morphological similarities with Nilo-Saharan include the personal pronouns ai, 'I', ni, 'you ', yer, 'we', wor, 'you '; relative and adjective formants -ma and -ko, a plural suffix -an, a hypothetical plural suffix -r which he takes to appear in the pronouns yer and wor, intransitive/passive -a.
The most striking of the Mande similarities listed by Creissels are the third person pronouns a sg., i pl., the demonstratives wo "this" and no "there", the negative na and negative perfect mana, the subjunctive ma, the copula ti, the verbal connective ka, the suffixes -ri, -ncè, -anta, -anta, -endi, and the postposition ra "in"
The Songhay languages are considered to be an independent family by Dimmendaal, although he classifies Saharan as part of Nilo-Saharan.

Grammar

Songhay is mostly a tonal, SOV group of languages, an exception being the divergent Koyra Chiini of Timbuktu, which is non-tonal and uses SVO order.
Songhay has a morpheme -ndi which marks either the causative or the agentless passive. Verbs can even take two instances of the morpheme, one for each meaning. Thus ŋa-ndi-ndi figuratively translates to " was made to be eaten ".

Reconstruction

Some Proto-Songhay reconstructions are:
GlossProto-Songhay
person*bòro
bird*kídòw
scorpion, mosquito*děŋ
ashes*bó:sú
stone, mountain*tóndì
year*gí:rí; *mánà
yesterday*bǐ:
ask*há˜
bring*kàte
thorn*kárgí
skin*kú:rú
blood*kúdí
year*gí:rí

Some Proto-Eastern Songhay reconstructions are:
GlossProto-Eastern Songhay
thatch hut*bùgù
armpit, wing*fátá
thirst*gèw
flank*kéráw
mason wasp*bímbín
sweat*súŋgáy

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
Language12345678910
affu*jnkajnzˁarˁəbʕaχəmsasəttasəbʕatmənjatəsʕaʕəʃrˁa
a-ˈfːo / a-ˈfːoo-dahiŋˈkakaːˈrˤad < Tamasheqaˈkːoːz < Tamasheqʃaˈmːuʃ < Tamasheqʃaːˈdˤiʃ < Tamasheqiˈʃːa < Tamasheqiˈtˤːam < Tamasheqtˤaːˈsˤa < Tamasheqmaːˈrˤa < Tamasheq
fó / a-fːóhínká / à-hínkáhínzà / à-hínzàtáásì / à-tːáásìxámsà < Arabicsítːà < Arabicsábàɣà < Arabictàmáníyà < Arabictísàɣà < Arabicɣàsárà < Arabic
afɔhayinka / ahinkaahinzaatakiaɡuayiduayiye / ahiyeayiyakuayiɡaaweyi
affooihinkaihinzaitaatʃiiɡɡuuidduuiyyeiyaahaiyaɡɡaiwoy
foo / a-foohiŋkahindʒataatʃiɡuuidduiiyeyaahayaɡɡawoy / wey
àˈfóìˈhíŋkáìˈhínzàìˈtaːcíìˈɡúˈíddùˈijjèàˈhákˌkùˈjǽɡɡàìˈwéɪ

On genetic affiliation