Shu Han
Han, known in historiography as Shu Han or Ji Han, was one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period. The state was based in the area around present-day Sichuan and Chongqing, which was historically known as "Shu" after an earlier state in Sichuan named Shu. Shu Han's founder Liu Bei had named his state "Han" as he considered it the legitimate successor to the Han dynasty, while "Shu" is added to the name as a geographical prefix to differentiate it from the many "Han" states throughout Chinese history.
History
Beginnings and founding
Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Liu Bei, a warlord and distant relative of the Han imperial clan, rallied the support of many capable followers. Following the counsel of his advisor, Zhuge Liang, and Zhuge's Longzhong Plan, Liu Bei conquered parts of Jing Province in 208 and 209. Liu Bei took over Yi Province from the warlord Liu Zhang between 212 and 214 and wrestled control of Hanzhong from his rival Cao Cao in 219.From the territories he gained, Liu Bei established a position for himself in China during the final years of the Han dynasty. However, in 219, the alliance between Liu Bei and his ally, Sun Quan, was broken when Sun sent his general Lü Meng to invade Jing Province. Liu Bei lost his territories in Jing Province to Sun Quan. Guan Yu, the general guarding Liu Bei's assets in Jing Province, was captured and executed by Sun Quan's forces.
Cao Cao died in 220 and was succeeded by his son, Cao Pi, who forced the last Han ruler, Emperor Xian, to abdicate the throne in his favour. Cao Pi then established the state of Cao Wei and declared himself emperor. Liu Bei contested Cao Pi's claim to the throne and proclaimed himself "Emperor of Han" in 221. Although Liu Bei is widely seen as the founder of Shu, he never claimed to be the founder of a new dynasty; rather, he viewed Shu as a continuation of the fallen Han dynasty.
Liu Bei's reign
Liu Bei ruled as emperor for less than three years. In 222, he launched a campaign against Sun Quan to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu, culminating in the Battle of Xiaoting. However, due to grave tactical mistakes, Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Sun Quan's general Lu Xun and lost the bulk of his army. He survived the battle and retreated to Baidicheng, where he died from illness a year later.Liu Shan's reign
Liu Bei's son Liu Shan succeeded his father, making him the youngest of three rulers at only 16. Before his death, Liu Bei also appointed the chancellor Zhuge Liang and the general Li Yan as regents to assist Liu Shan in managing the state affairs.Zhuge Liang was the de facto head of the Shu government throughout Liu Shan's reign and was responsible for masterminding most of Shu's policies during his regency. When Liu Shan succeeded his father, Shu was the weakest of the three major powers. Following his father's defeat in 221, the portion of Jing Province previously held by Shu was now firmly under the control of Wu. Shu only included the western lands of Yi Province, while Wei controlled all of the northern lands, and Wu controlled all the lands from the east of Yi Province to the southern and eastern coastlines. This greatly limited Shu in terms of resources and manpower. As such, Zhuge Liang parleyed for peace with Wu, and reaffirmed the alliance between Sun Quan and Shu — with the former even recognising Sun Quan's legitimacy when the latter broke with Wei and declared himself "Emperor of Wu" in 229.
Zhuge Liang advocated an aggressive foreign policy towards Wei, because he strongly believed it was critical to the survival of Shu and its sovereignty. Between the years of 228 and 234, he launched a series of five military campaigns against Wei, with the aim of conquering Chang'an, a strategic city located on the road to the Wei capital, Luoyang. Most of the battles were fought around present-day Gansu and Shaanxi provinces. However, aside from gaining Jiang Wei as an officer in 228, Shu failed to achieve any significant victories or lasting gains in the five expeditions. During his final campaign, fought against the Wei general Sima Yi, an already taxed and ill Zhuge Liang died under the strain of the long stalemate with the Wei forces at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains.
The Shu government was then headed by Jiang Wan, Fei Yi and others after Zhuge Liang's death, and Shu temporarily ceased its aggression towards Wei. The Wei regent Cao Shuang launched an invasion of Hanzhong in 244. Despite being outnumbered 2-to-1, the Shu forces defeated them at the Battle of Xingshi, with the humiliated Wei forces fleeing. Between 247 and 262, the Shu general Jiang Wei resumed Zhuge Liang's legacy by leading a series of military campaigns against Wei, but also failed to make any significant territorial gains.
Fall of Shu
In 263, armies led by the Wei generals Deng Ai and Zhong Hui attacked Shu and conquered its capital Chengdu without much struggle — the state having been exhausted by Jiang Wei's ill-fated campaigns. In the same year, Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai outside Chengdu, marking the end of Shu. In spite of this, Jiang Wei attempted to incite conflict between Deng Ai and Zhong Hui in the hope of taking advantage of the situation to revive Shu. Zhong Hui captured Deng Ai and openly rebelled against the Wei regent, Sima Zhao, but the revolt was suppressed by Wei forces. Jiang Wei, Zhong Hui and Deng Ai were killed in the struggle.Liu Shan was brought to Luoyang, where he met with Sima Zhao and was awarded the title of "Duke of Anle". He lived a comfortable and peaceful life in Luoyang until the end of his days.
Government and military
Shu's population was not large enough to stand against the rival state of Wei. Although the country could efficiently defend itself, Shu could not easily launch successful campaigns. The first step to solving this was to launch an offensive against the Nanman in present-day Yunnan. This would secure more individuals for the army. It would also gain control over trade with India.Economy
Shu was not merely a nation at war. During peacetime, the Shu state began many irrigation and road-building projects designed to improve the economy. Many of these public works still exist and are widely used. For example, the Zipingpu Dam is still present near Chengdu, Sichuan. These works helped improve the economy of southwestern China and can be seen as the beginning of economic activity in Sichuan. It also promoted trade with southern China, which was then ruled by Eastern Wu.List of territories
| Commandery | Counties |
| Shu 蜀 | Chengdu 成都 |
| Shu 蜀 | Fan 繁 |
| Shu 蜀 | Jiangyuan 江原 |
| Shu 蜀 | Linqiong 臨邛 |
| Shu 蜀 | Pi 郫 |
| Zitong 梓潼 | Zitong 梓潼 |
| Zitong 梓潼 | Fu 涪 |
| Zitong 梓潼 | Hande 漢德 |
| Zitong 梓潼 | Hanshou 漢壽 |
| Zitong 梓潼 | Boshui 白水 |
| Guanghan 廣漢 | Luo 雒 |
| Guanghan 廣漢 | Shifang 什邡 |
| Guanghan 廣漢 | Mianzhu 綿竹 |
| Guanghan 廣漢 | Xindu 新都 |
| Guanghan 廣漢 | Yangquan 陽泉 |
| Han 漢 | Qi 郪 |
| Han 漢 | Deyang 德陽 |
| Han 漢 | Wucheng 五城 |
| Han 漢 | Guanghan 廣漢 |
| Wenshan 汶山 | Wenshan 汶山 |
| Wenshan 汶山 | Jiandi 湔氐 |
| Wenshan 汶山 | Du'an 都安 |
| Wenshan 汶山 | Miansi 綿虒 |
| Wenshan 汶山 | Pingkang 平康 |
| Wenshan 汶山 | Canling 蠶陵 |
| Wenshan 汶山 | Guangrou 廣柔 |
| Wenshan 汶山 | Boma 白馬 |
| Ba 巴 | Jiangzhou 江州 |
| Ba 巴 | Dianjiang 墊江 |
| Ba 巴 | Linjiang 臨江 |
| Ba 巴 | Zhi 枳 |
| Baxi 巴西 | Langzhong 閬中 |
| Baxi 巴西 | Xichong 西充國 |
| Baxi 巴西 | Nanchong 南充國 |
| Baxi 巴西 | Hanchang 漢昌 |
| Baxi 巴西 | Xuanhan 宣漢 |
| Baxi 巴西 | Anhan 安漢 |
| Baxi 巴西 | Dangqu 宕渠 |
| Badong 巴東 | Yong'an 永安 |
| Badong 巴東 | Quren 朐忍 |
| Badong 巴東 | Yangqu 羊渠 |
| Badong 巴東 | Beijing 北井 |
| Badong 巴東 | Handan 漢單 |
| Badong 巴東 | Wu 巫 |
| Fuling 涪陵 | Hanfu 漢復 |
| Fuling 涪陵 | Fuling 涪陵 |
| Fuling 涪陵 | Hanping 漢平 |
| Fuling 涪陵 | Hanjia 漢葭 |
| Fuling 涪陵 | Wanning 萬寧 |
| Jianwei 犍為 | Wuyang 武陽 |
| Jianwei 犍為 | Nan'an 南安 |
| Jianwei 犍為 | Bodao 僰道 |
| Jianwei 犍為 | Zizhong 資中 |
| Jianwei 犍為 | Niubing 牛鞞 |
| Jiangyang 江陽 | Jiangyang 江陽 |
| Jiangyang 江陽 | Fu 符 |
| Jiangyang 江陽 | Han'an 漢安 |
| Hanjia 漢嘉 | Hanjia 漢嘉 |
| Hanjia 漢嘉 | Xi 徙 |
| Hanjia 漢嘉 | Yandao 嚴道 |
| Hanjia 漢嘉 | Maoniu 旄牛 |
| Commandery | Counties |
| Hanzhong 漢中 | Nanzheng 南鄭 |
| Hanzhong 漢中 | Baozhong 褒中 |
| Hanzhong 漢中 | Mianyang 沔陽 |
| Hanzhong 漢中 | Chenggu 成固 |
| Hanzhong 漢中 | Nanxiang 南鄉 |
| Wudu 武都 | Xiabian 下辯 |
| Wudu 武都 | Hechi 河池 |
| Wudu 武都 | Ju 沮 |
| Wudu 武都 | Wudu 武都 |
| Wudu 武都 | Gudao 故道 |
| Wudu 武都 | Qiangdao 羌道 |
| Yinping 陰平 | Yinping 陰平 |
| Yinping 陰平 | Pingguang 平廣 |
| Commandery | Counties |
| Shushi 朱提 | Shushi 朱提 |
| Shushi 朱提 | Nanguang 南廣 |
| Shushi 朱提 | Hanyang 漢陽 |
| Shushi 朱提 | Nanchang 南昌 |
| Shushi 朱提 | Tanglang 堂狼 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Huiwu 會無 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Qiongdu 邛都 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Beishui 卑水 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Dingzha 定苲 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Taideng 臺登 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Anshang 安上 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Xindao 新道 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Qianjie 潛街 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Sanfeng 三縫 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Suqi 蘇祁 |
| Yuexi 越巂 | Chan 闡 |
| Zangke 牂柯 | Qielan 且蘭 |
| Zangke 牂柯 | Tanzhi 談指 |
| Zangke 牂柯 | Yelang 夜郎 |
| Zangke 牂柯 | Wulian 毋斂 |
| Zangke 牂柯 | Bi 鄨 |
| Zangke 牂柯 | Pingyi 平夷 |
| Zangke 牂柯 | Guangtan 廣談 |
| Yunnan 雲南 | Yunnan 雲南 |
| Yunnan 雲南 | Longdong 梇棟 |
| Yunnan 雲南 | Qingling 青蛉 |
| Yunnan 雲南 | Gufu 姑復 |
| Yunnan 雲南 | Xielong 邪龍 |
| Yunnan 雲南 | Yeyu 楪榆 |
| Yunnan 雲南 | Suijiu 遂久 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Juting 句町 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Wanwen 宛溫 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Louwo 漏臥 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Bengu 賁古 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Hanxing 漢興 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Jincheng 進乘 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Xifeng 西豐 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Xisui 西隨 |
| Xinggu 興古 | Duofeng 鐸封 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Wei 味 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Cun 存 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Mudan 母單 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Tonglai 同瀨 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Muma 牧麻 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Guchang 穀昌 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Lianran 連然 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Qinzang 秦臧 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Shuangbai 雙柏 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Yuyuan 俞元 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Xiuyun 修雲 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Dianchi 滇池 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Tonglao 同勞 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Tongjing 同井 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Shengxiu 勝休 |
| Jianning 建寧 | Jianling 建伶 |
| Yongchang 永昌 | Buwei 不韋 |
| Yongchang 永昌 | Yongshou 永壽 |
| Yongchang 永昌 | Bisu 比蘇 |
| Yongchang 永昌 | Nanfu 南涪 |
| Yongchang 永昌 | Suitang 巂唐 |
| Yongchang 永昌 | Ailao 哀牢 |
| Yongchang 永昌 | Bonan 博南 |
List of emperors
| Temple name | Posthumous name | Family name and personal name | Reign | Era names and their year ranges | Notes | |||||
| Emperor Zhaolie 昭烈皇帝 | Liu Bei 劉備 | 221-223 |
| Liu Bei is also referred to as the "Late Emperor" | Emperor Xiaohuai 孝懷皇帝 | Liu Shan 劉禪 | 223-263 |
| Liu Shan was posthumously granted the title of "Duke Si of Anle" by the Jin dynasty. He was later posthumously honoured as "Emperor Xiaohuai" by Liu Yuan, the founder of the Han Zhao state of the Sixteen Kingdoms. He is also referred to as the "Later Lord" in some historical texts. |