Religious text
Religious texts are texts related to a religious tradition. They differ from literary texts by being a compilation or discussion of beliefs, mythologies, ritual practices, commandments or laws, ethical conduct, spiritual aspirations, and for creating or fostering a religious community. The relative authority of religious texts develops over time and is derived from the ratification, enforcement, and its use across generations. Some religious texts are accepted or categorized as, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical.
A scripture is a subset of religious texts considered to be "especially authoritative", revered and "holy writ", "sacred, canonical", or of "supreme authority, special status" to a religious community. The terms 'sacred text' and 'religious text' are not necessarily interchangeable in that some religious texts are believed to be sacred because of the belief in some theistic religions such as the Abrahamic religions that the text is divinely or supernaturally revealed or divinely inspired, or in non-theistic religions such as some Indian religions they are considered to be the central tenets of their eternal Dharma. Many religious texts, in contrast, are simply narratives or discussions pertaining to the general themes, interpretations, practices, or important figures of the specific religion. In some religions, the scripture of supreme authority is well established. In others, the canonical texts include a particular text but is "an unsettled question", according to Eugene Nida. In yet others, there "has never been a definitive canon". While the term scripture is derived from the Latin scriptura, meaning "writing", most sacred scriptures of the world's major religions were originally a part of their oral tradition, and were "passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing", according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Religious texts also serve a ceremonial and liturgical role, particularly in relation to sacred time, the liturgical year, the divine efficacy and subsequent holy service; in a more general sense, its performance.
Etymology and nomenclature
According to Peter Beal, the term scripture – derived from "scriptura" – meant "writings in general" prior to the medieval era, then became "reserved to denote the texts of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible". Beyond Christianity, according to the Oxford World Encyclopedia, the term "scripture" has referred to a text accepted to contain the "sacred writings of a religion", while The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions states it refers to a text "having authority and often collected into an accepted canon". In modern times, this equation of the written word with religious texts is particular to the English language, and is not retained in most other languages, which usually add an adjective like "sacred" to denote religious texts.Some religious texts are categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical. The term "canon" is derived from the Greek word "kανών", "a cane used as a measuring instrument". It connotes the sense of "measure, standard, norm, rule". In the modern usage, a religious canon refers to a "catalogue of sacred scriptures" that is broadly accepted to "contain and agree with the rule or canon of a particular faith", states Juan Widow. The related terms such as "non-canonical", "extracanonical", "deuterocanonical" and others presume and are derived from "canon". These derived terms differentiate a corpus of religious texts from the "canonical" literature. At its root, this differentiation reflects the sects and conflicts that developed and branched off over time, the competitive "acceptance" of a common minimum over time and the "rejection" of interpretations, beliefs, rules or practices by one group of another related socio-religious group. The earliest reference to the term "canon" in the context of "a collection of sacred Scripture" is traceable to the 4th-century CE. The early references, such as the Synod of Laodicea, mention both the terms "canonical" and "non-canonical" in the context of religious texts.
History of religious texts
One of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of ancient Sumer, a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE. The Epic of Gilgamesh from Sumer, although only considered by some scholars as a religious text, has origins as early as 2150 BCE, and stands as one of the earliest literary works that includes various mythological figures and themes of interaction with the divine. The ‘’Rig Veda’’ – a scripture of Hinduism – is dated to between 1500–1200 BCE. It is one of the oldest known complete religious texts that has survived into the modern age.There are many possible dates given to the first writings which can be connected to Talmudic and Biblical traditions, the earliest of which is found in scribal documentation of the 8th century BCE, followed by administrative documentation from temples of the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, with another common date being the 2nd century BCE. Although a significant text in the history of religious text because of its widespread use among religious denominations and its continued use throughout history, the texts of the Abrahamic traditions are a good example of the lack of certainty surrounding dates and definitions of religious texts.
High rates of mass production and distribution of religious texts did not begin until the invention of the printing press in 1440, before which all religious texts were hand written copies, of which there were relatively limited quantities in circulation.
Sacred texts of various religions
The following is an in-exhaustive list of links to specific religious texts which may be used for further, more in-depth study.Bronze Age
;Ancient Egyptian religionfrom Teti I's pyramid.
- Pyramid Texts
- Coffin Texts
- Book of the Dead
- Book of Caverns
- Book of Gates
- Amduat
- Book of the Heavenly Cow
- Litany of Re
- Atenism: Great Hymn to the Aten
- Hymn to Enlil
- Kesh Temple Hymn
- Song of the hoe
- Innana Descent to the Underworld
- Epic of Gilgamesh
- Epic of Enmerkar
- * Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta
- * Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana
- Epic of Lugalbanda
- * Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave
- * Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird
Classical antiquity
- Etruscan religion
- * Liber Linteus
- * Pyrgi Tablets
- Ancient Greece
- * Aretalogy
- * Argonautica
- * Bibliotheca
- * Derveni papyrus
- * Ehoiai
- * Homeric Hymns
- * Iliad
- * Odyssey
- * Telegony
- * The golden verses of Pythagoras
- * Delphic maxims
- * Theogony
- * Works and Days
- * Epic Cycle
- * Theban Cycle
- Hermeticism
- * Hermetica
- * Kybalion
- * Emerald Tablet
- Mandaeanism
- * The Ginza Rba
- * Qolusta
- * Book of John the Baptizer
- * Baptism of Hibil Ziwa
- * Haran Gawaita
- Manichaeism
- * The Gospel of Mani. Also known as The Living Gospel
- * the Treasure of Life
- * the Pragmateia
- * The Book of Giants
- * Fundamental Epistle
- * Manichaean Psalter
- * The Shabuhragan
- * The Arzhang
- * The Kephalaia, "Discourses", found in Coptic translation.
- Orphism
- * Orphic Poems
Ancient China
- Confucianism
- * The Five Classics
- * The Four Books
- * The Thirteen Classics
- * The Three Commentaries
- Taoism
- * Tao Te Ching
- * Zhuangzi
- * Daozang
Ethnic religions
- Bön : Bon Kangyur and Tengyur
- Old Norse Paganism: Edda
- Kiratism: The Mundhum of the Limbu ethnic group
- Qizilbash
- * Buyruks of Qizilbash
- * Fetevatnameh
- Samaritanism
- * The Samaritan Torah
- Shabakism
- * Buyruk
- Shinto
- * The Kojiki
- * The Rikkokushi, which includes the Nihon Shoki and the Shoku Nihongi
- * The Fudoki
- * The Jinnō Shōtōki
- * The Kujiki
- Yorùbá
- * Odù Ifá
- * Jaap Verduijn's Odu Ifa Collection
Iranian
28.1
- Primary religious texts, that is, the Avesta collection:
- * The Yasna, the primary liturgical collection, includes the Gathas.
- * The Visperad, a collection of supplements to the Yasna.
- * The Yashts, hymns in honor of the divinities.
- * The Vendidad, describes the various forms of evil spirits and ways to confound them.
- * shorter texts and prayers, the Yashts the five Nyaishes, the Sirozeh and the Afringans.
- There are some 60 secondary religious texts, none of which are considered scripture. The most important of these are:
- * The Denkard,
- * The Bundahishn,
- * The Menog-i Khrad,
- * The Arda Viraf Namak
- * The Sad-dar
- * The Rivayats, 15th-18th century correspondence on religious issues
- For general use by the laity:
- * The Zend, various commentaries on and translations of the Avesta.
- * The Khordeh Avesta, Zoroastrian prayer book for lay people from the Avesta.
; Yazidi
- The true core texts of the Yazidi religion that exist today are the hymns, known as qawls. Spurious examples of so-called "Yazidi religious texts" include the Yazidi Black Book and the Yazidi Book of Revelation, which were forged in the early 20th century
- Rasa'il al-hikmah''
Indian
[Hinduism]
; Śruti- The Four Vedas
- * Rig Veda
- * Sama Veda
- * Yajur Veda
- * Atharva Veda
- Samhitas
- Brahmanas
- Aranyakas
- Upanishads
; Smriti
- Itihāsas
- * Mahābhārata
- ** Bhagavad Gita
- * Ramayana
- Puranas
- * Bhagavata Purana
- Tantras
- Sutras
- Stotras
- Ashtavakra Gita
- Gherand Samhita
- Gita Govinda
- Hatha Yoga Pradipika
- Yoga Vasistha
; In Vedanta
; In Yoga
; In Samkhya
- Samkhya Sutras of Kapila
- Nyāya Sūtras of Gautama
- Vaisheshika Sutras of Kanada
- Vaikhanasa Samhitas
- Pancaratra Samhitas
- Divyaprabandha
- Sakta Tantras
- 64 Bhairavagamas
- 28 Shaiva Agamas
- Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta
- Vijnana Bhairava Tantra
; In Shaiva Siddhanta
- 28 Saiva Agamas
- Tirumurai
- Meykandar Shastras
- Brahma Samhita
- Jayadeva's Gita Govinda
- Chaitanya Bhagavata
- Chaitanya Charitamrita
- Prema-bhakti-candrika
- Hari-bhakti-vilasa
- Siddhanta Shikhamani
- Vachana sahitya
- Mantra Gopya
- Shoonya Sampadane
- 28 Agamas
- Karana Hasuge
- Basava purana
- poems of Kabir
; Theravada Buddhism
- The Tipitaka or Pāli Canon
- *Vinaya Pitaka
- * Sutta Pitaka
- **Digha Nikaya, the "long" discourses
- ** Majjhima Nikaya, the "middle-length" discourses
- ** Samyutta Nikaya, the "connected" discourses
- ** Anguttara Nikaya, the "numerical" discourses
- ** Khuddaka Nikaya, the "minor collection"
- * Abhidhamma Pitaka
, the oldest known dated printed book in the world, printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era of the Tang Dynasty, or 868 CE. British Library.
- The Chinese Buddhist Mahayana sutras, including
- * Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra
- * Shurangama Sutra and its Shurangama Mantra
- *Great Compassion Mantra
- * Pure Land Buddhism
- ** Infinite Life Sutra
- ** Amitabha Sutra
- ** Contemplation Sutra
- ** other Pure Land Sutras
- * Tiantai, Tendai, and Nichiren
- ** Lotus Sutra
- * Shingon
- ** Mahavairocana Sutra
- ** Vajrasekhara Sutra
- Tibetan Kangyur and Tengyur
[Jainism]
- 11 Angas
- * Secondary
- ** 12 Upangas, 4 Mula-sutras, 6 Cheda-sutras, 2 Culika-sutras, 10 Prakirnakas
- Samaysara
- Pravachanasara
- Niyamsara
- Pancastikayasara
- Karmaprabhrita, also called Satkhandagama
- Kashayaprabhrita
- Jina Vijaya
- Tattvartha Sutra
- GandhaHasti Mahabhashya
- Four Anuyogas
[Sikhism]
- The Guru Granth Sahib
- The Dasam Granth
[Satpanth]
- Quran
- Ginans
- Dua
[Judaism]
; Kabbalism
; Hasidism
- Early texts:
- * Noam Elimelech
- * Kedushat Levi
- Foundational texts of various Hasidic sects:
- * Likutei Moharan
- * Me'or Einayim
- * Mei Hashiloach
- * Tanya
- * Vayoel Moshe
- The Tanakh
- The Tanakh with several Jewish apocrypha
[Christianity]
, 1407 handwritten copy
- Common to all the Christian canons, the Old Testament of 39 protocanonical books and the New Testament of 27 books.
- * Aside from Protestantism, at least 7 more books in the Old Testament, the deuterocanonical books.
- * Catholicism defines only the above, for a total of 73 books, called the Canon of Trent.
- * For the Church of the East, this includes most of the Deuterocanonical books of the Old Testament which are found in the Peshitta. The New Testament in modern versions contains the 5 disputed books that were originally excluded.
- * For Eastern Orthodoxy, this includes the anagignoskomena, which consist of the Catholic deuterocanon, plus 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh, and 3 Esdras; 4 Maccabees is considered to be canonical by the Georgian Orthodox Church. Also, the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, is authoritative.
- * For Oriental Orthodoxy, the Biblical Canon differs in each Patriarchate.
- ** The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church has at various times included a variety of books in the New Testament which are not included in the canons of other traditions.
- ** The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church accept various books according to either of the Narrower or the Broader Canons but always include the entire Catholic deuterocanon, The Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Ezra, 4 Ezra, and The Book of Josippon. They may also include the Book of Jubilees, Book of Enoch, 1 Baruch, 4 Baruch, as well as 1, 2, and 3 Meqabyan. The New Testament contains the Sinodos, the Books of the Covenant, Clement, and the Didascalia.
- * Some Syrian Churches, regardless of whether they are Eastern Catholic, Nestorian, Oriental or Eastern Orthodox, accept the Letter of Baruch as scripture.
- * For most of Protestantism, this includes the 66-book canon - the Jewish Tanakh of 24 books divided differently and the universal 27-book New Testament. Some denominations also include the 15 books of the Apocrypha between the Old Testament and the New Testament, for a total of 81 books.
- * Some early Quakers also included the Epistle to the Laodiceans.
- * For Jehovah's Witnesses The Bible
- Catholic liturgical books
- * Books of the clergy
- ** The Roman Missal
- ** The Book of the Gospels
- ** The Lectionary
- ** Sacramentary
- ** Pontifical
- ** Cæremoniale Episcoporum
- ** Breviary
- ** Gradual
- ** Liber Usualis
- ** Roman Ritual
- ** Roman Martyrology
- * Books of church attendants:
- **Missal
- ** Missalette
- ** Hymnal
- Protestant liturgical books
- *Lutheranism
- **Evangelical Lutheran Hymn-Book 1912
- ** The Lutheran Hymnal 1941
- ** Lutheran Book of Prayer 1941
- ** Lutheran Service Book and Hymnal 1958
- ** Lutheran Book of Worship 1978
- ** Lutheran Worship 1982
- ** Evangelical Lutheran Worship 2006
- ** Lutheran Service Book 2006
- ** Numerous hymn, service and guide books
- * Methodism
- **The Sunday Service of the Methodists
- ** Book of Worship for Church and Home
- ** The Book of Hymns
- ** The United Methodist Hymnal
- ** The United Methodist Book of Worship
- ** Book of Discipline
- ** Numerous hymn, service and guide books
- * Seventh-day Adventists
- **The writings of Ellen White are held to an elevated status, though not equal with the Bible, as she is considered to have been an inspired prophetess.
- * Southern Baptists
- **Baptist Hymnal
- ** Numerous hymn, service and guide books
- Christian Scientists liturgical books
- *Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy. This textbook, along with the Bible, serves as the permanent "impersonal pastor" of the church.
church.
- Gnosticism liturgical books
- *Nag Hammadi library and other Gnostic texts
- * Some books of the Old Testament and New Testament
- ** Cerdonianism and Marcionism
- * Only the Gospel of Marcion and selected Pauline epistles accepted
- Native American Church
- Swedenborgianism liturgical books
- * Doctrine of the Lord
- * Doctrines of faith and charity
- Unification Church liturgical books
- * The Bible as illuminated by more recent revelation
- * Divine Principle
- Unity Church liturgical books
- * Lessons in Truth: A Course of Twelve Lessons in Practical Christianity
;Latter Day Saint movement
- The Bible
- * The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses the LDS edition of the King James Bible for English-speaking members; other versions are used in non-English speaking countries.
- * The Community of Christ uses the Joseph Smith Translation, which it calls the Inspired Version, as well as updated modern translations.
- The Book of Mormon
- The Pearl of Great Price is authoritative in the LDS Church, rejected by Community of Christ.
- The Doctrine and Covenants
- * There are significant differences in content and section numbering between the Doctrine and Covenants used by the Community of Christ and the LDS Church.
- Other, smaller branches of Latter Day Saints include other scriptures, such as the Book of the Law of the Lord used by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints or The Word of the Lord used by Fettingite branches.
[Islam]
- The Quran – Four books considered to be revealed and mentioned by name in the Qur'an are the Quran, Tawrat, the Zabur and the Injil
- Hadith books :
- Other Hadith books
- Shia Islam
- * Hadith books : Kitab al-Kafi, Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih Tahdhib al-Ahkam, Al-Istibsar.
- * Other Hadith books, like Bihar al-Anwar, Awalim al-Ulum; and Tafsirs, such as Tafsir al-Burhan
- * Prayer books and Ziyarat such as Mafateh al Jinan and Kamel al Ziyarat.
- Books on biography of Prophet Muhammad. There are thousands of biographies written, though unlike the Hadith collections, they are usually not accepted as canonical religious texts. Some of the more authentic and famous of them are:
- Alawites
- *Quran
- * Kitab al Majmu
- * Other 114 canonical scriptures such as and the other 113 scriptures were authored by imam Ali, imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, the 11th Bab Ibn Nusayr and the medieval sages of the sect such as Al-Khasibi.
- Mevlevi Order
- * Quran
- * Masnavi
- * Fihi Ma Fihi
- * Diwan-e Shams-e Tabrizi
- Alevism
- * Quran
- * Nahj al-Balagha
- * Buyruks
- * :tr:Makalat|Makalat
- * Vilayetname
- * Akhiratnama
Pre-Columbian Americas
- Aztec religion
- * The Borgia Group codices
- Maya religion
- * The Popol Vuh
- * the Dresden Codex
- * the Madrid Codex
- * the Paris Codex
New religious movements
- Ayyavazhi
- * The Akilathirattu Ammanai
- * The Arul Nool
- The ACIM Movement
- * A Course in Miracles
- The writings of Franklin Albert Jones a.k.a. Adi Da Love-Ananda Samraj
- * Aletheon
- * The Companions of the True Dawn Horse
- * The Dawn Horse Testament
- * Gnosticon
- * The Heart of the Adi Dam Revelation
- * Not-Two IS Peace
- * Pneumaton
- * Transcendental Realism
- Aetherius Society
- * The Nine Freedoms
- Ásatrú
- * Eddur
- Bahá'í Faith: see Bahá'í literature
- Caodaism
- * Kinh Thiên Đạo Và Thế Đạo
- * Pháp Chánh Truyền
- * Tân Luật
- * Thánh Ngôn Hiệp Tuyển
- Cheondoism
- * The Donghak Scripture
- * The Songs of Yongdam
- * The Sermons of Master Haeweol
- * The Sermons of Revered Teacher Euiam
- Creativity Movement: The writings of Ben Klassen
- * Nature's Eternal Religion
- * White Man's Bible
- * Salubrious Living
- Discordianism: The Principia Discordia
- Dudeism
- * The Dude De Ching
- * Duderonomy
- Freemasonry
- * Book of Constitutions
- * All Scriptures
- Jediism
- * Aionomica
- * Rammahgon
- Konkokyo
- * Oshirase-Goto Obobe-Chō
- * Konko Daijin Oboegaki
- * Gorikai I
- * Gorikai II
- * Gorikai III
- Meher Baba
- * God Speaks
- * Discourses
- Meivazhi
- * Āti mey utaya pūrana veētāntam
- * Āntavarkal mānmiyam
- * Eman pātar atipatu tiru meyññanak koral
- * Eman pātar atipatu kotāyūtak kūr
- * '
- Pastafarianism
- * The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster
- Raëlism: The writings of Raël aka Claude Vorilhon
- * '
- * Sensual Meditation
- * Yes to Human Cloning
- Rastafari movement
- * The Bible
- * the Holy Piby
- * the Kebra Nagast
- * The speeches and writings of Haile Selassie I
- * Royal Parchment Scroll of Black Supremacy
- Ravidassia
- * The Amritbani Guru Ravidass Ji
- Science of Mind
- * The Science of Mind by Ernest Holmes
- Scientology
- *
- * List of Scientology texts
- Spiritism
- * The Spirits Book
- * The Book on Mediums
- * The Gospel According to Spiritism
- * Heaven and Hell
- * The Genesis According to Spiritism
- Tenrikyo
- * The Ofudesaki
- * The Mikagura-uta
- * The Osashizu
- Thelema
- * The Holy Books of Thelema, especially The Book of the Law
- Unarius Academy of Science
- * The Pulse of Creation Series
- * The Infinite Concept of Cosmic Creation
- Urantianism
- * The Urantia Book
- Wicca
- * Book of Shadows
- * Charge of the Goddess
- * Threefold Law
- * Wiccan Rede