Rajatarangini


Rajatarangini is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western Indian subcontinent, particularly the kings of Kashmir. It was written in Sanskrit by Kashmiri historian Kalhana in the 12th century CE. The work consists of 7826 verses, which are divided into eight books called Tarangas.
The Rajataringini provides the earliest source on Kashmir that can be labeled as a "historical" text on this region. Although inaccurate in its chronology, the book still provides an invaluable source of information about early Kashmir and its neighbors in the north western parts of the Indian subcontinent, and has been widely referenced by later historians and ethnographers..

Context

Little is known about the author Kalhana, apart from what is written in the book. His father Champaka was the minister in the court of Harsha of Kashmir. In the first Taranga of Rajatarangini, Kalhana expresses his dissatisfaction with the earlier historical books, and presents his own views on how history ought to be written:
Despite these stated principles, Kalhana's work is also full of legends and inconsistencies.

List of kings

The kings of Kashmir described in the Rajatarangini are given below. Notes in parentheses refer to a book and verse. Thus is Book IV verse 678. The summary is from J.C. Dutt's translation. Kalhana's work uses Kali and Laukika calendar eras: the ascension year in CE, as given below, has been calculated by Dutt based on Kalhana's records.

Book 1

Kalhana mentions that Gonanda I ascended the throne in 653 Kali calendar era. According to Jogesh Chander Dutt's calculation, this year corresponds to 2448 BCE. The total reign of the following kings is mentioned as 1266 years.
RulerNotes
Gonanda IContemporary of Yudhishthira, a relative of Magadha's ruler Jarasindhu. He was killed by Balarama, the elder brother of Jarasandha's enemy Krishna.
Damodara IKilled in a battle with by Krishna's friends
YashovatiWife of Damodara. She was pregnant at the time of her husband's death, and Krishna helped her ascend the throne.
Gonanda IISon of Yashovati and Damodara
35 kings A manuscript titled Ratnakar Purana supposedly contained these names, and was translated into Persian by the orders of the later Muslim ruler Zain-ul-Abidin. The purported original manuscript as well as its translation are now lost. A Muslim historian named Hassan is said to have obtained a copy of the translation, and the later Muslim historians provided a fabricated list of 35 names ending in -Khan.
Lava
KusheshayaSon of Lava
KhagendraSon of Kusheshaya
SurendraSon of Khagendra
GodharaBelonged to a different family from Lava's dynasty
SuvarnaKnown for constructing a canal named Suvarnamani
JanakaUnsuccessfully invaded Persia
ShachinaraDied childless
AshokaGreat-grandson of Shakuni and son of Shachinara's first cousin. Built a great city called Srinagara. In his days, the mlechchhas overran the country, and he took sannyasa. According to Kalhana's account, this Ashoka would have ruled in the 2nd millennium BCE, and was a member of the dynasty founded by Godhara. Kalhana also states that this king had adopted the doctrine of Jina, constructed stupas and Shiva temples, and appeased Bhutesha to obtain his son Jalauka. Despite the discrepancies, multiple scholars identify Kalhana's Ashoka with the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, who adopted Buddhism. Although "Jina" is a term generally associated with Jainism, some ancient sources use it to refer to the Buddha.
Jalauka A staunch Shaivite, who constructed several Shiva temples. He rid the country from the mlechchhas. Romila Thapar equates Jalauka to the Mauryan prince Kunala, arguing that "Jalauka" is an erroneous spelling caused by a typographical error in Brahmi script.
Damodara IIDevout Shaivite. Built a new city called Damodarasuda, and a dam called Guddasetu.
Hushka, Jushka, and KanishkaBuddhist kings of Turashka origin. The third king is identified with Kanishka of the Kushan Empire.
Abhimanyu IA Shaivite during whose reigns Buddhists also flourished. Because of the rising Buddhist influence, people stopped following the Shaivite Nāga rites prescribed in the holy text Nila Purana. This angered the Nāgas, who heavily persecuted the Buddhists. To avoid this disorder, the king retired. A Brahmin named Chandradeva restored Shaivite rites by worshipping Shiva.

Gonanditya dynasty

The Gonanditya dynasty ruled Kashmir for 1002 years.
RulerReignAscension yearNotes
Gonanda III35 years1182 BCEGonanda III founded a new dynasty. He belonged to Rama's lineage, and restored the Nāga rites
Vibhishana I53 years, 6 months1147 BCE
Indrajit35 years1094 BCE
Ravana30 years, 6 months-A Shivalinga attributed to Ravana could still be seen at the time of Kalhana.
Vibhishana II35 years, 6 months1058 BCE
Nara I 40 years, 9 months1023 BCEHis queen eloped with a Buddhist monk, so he destroyed the Buddhist monasteries and gave their land to the Brahmins. He tried to abduct a Nāga woman, who was the wife of a Brahmin. Because of this, the Nāga chief burnt down the king's city, and the king died in the fire.
Siddha60 years983 BCESiddha, the son of Nara, was saved from Nāga's fury, because he was away from the capital at the time. He was a religious king, and followed a near-ascetic lifestyle.
Utpalaksha30 years, 6 months923 BCESon of Siddha
Hiranyaksha37 years, 7 months893 BCESon of Utpalaksha
Hiranyakula60 years855 BCESon of Hiranyaksha
Vasukula 60 years795 BCESon of Hiranyakula. During his reign, the Mlechchhas overran Kashmir.
Mihirakula70 years735 BCEIdentified with the Huna ruler Mihirakula, although Kalhana does not mention him as a Huna, and places him nearly 1200 years earlier. According to historical evidence, Mihirakula's predecessor was Toramana. Kalhana mentions a king called Toramana, but places him much later, in Book 3. According to Kalhana, Mihirakula was a cruel ruler who ordered killings of a large number of people, including children, women and elders. He invaded the Sinhala Kingdom, and replaced their king with a cruel man. As he passed through Chola, Karnata and other kingdoms on his way back to Kashmir, the rulers of these kingdoms fled their capitals and returned only after he had gone away. On his return to Kashmir, he ordered killings of 100 elephants, who had been startled by the cries of a fallen elephant. Once, Mihirakula dreamt that a particular stone could be moved only by a chaste woman. He put this to test: the women who were unable to move the stone were killed, along with their husbands, sons and brothers. He was supported by some immoral Brahmins. In his old age, the king committed self-immolation.
Vaka 63 years, 18 days665 BCEA virtuous king, he was seduced and killed by a woman named Vatta, along with several of his sons and grandsons.
Kshitinanda30 years602 BCEThe only surviving child of Vaka
Vasunanda52 years, 2 months572 BCE"Originator of the science of love"
Nara II60 years520 BCESon of Vasunanda
Aksha60 years460 BCESon of Nara II
Gopaditya60 years, 6 days400 BCESon of Aksha. Gave lands to Brahmins. Expelled several irreligious Brahmins who used to eat garlic ; in their place, he brought others from foreign countries.
Gokarna57 years, 11 months340 BCESon of Gopaditya
Narendraditya I 36 years, 3 months, 10 days282 BCESon of Gokarna
Yudhisthira I34 years, 5 months, 1 day246 BCECalled "the blind" because of his small eyes. In later years of his reign, he started patronizing unwise persons, and the wise courtiers deserted him. He was deposed by rebellious ministers, and granted asylum by a neighboring king. His descendant Meghavahana later restored the dynasty's rule.

Book 2

No kings mentioned in this book have been traced in any other historical source. These kings ruled Kashmir for 192 years.
RulerReignAscension yearNotes
Pratapaditya I32 years167 BCEPratapaditya was a relative of a distant king named Vikrmaditya. This Vikramaditya is not same as the Vikramaditya of Ujjain, who is mentioned later as a patron of Matrigupta.
Jalauka32 years135 BCESon of Pratapaditya
Tungjina I36 years103 BCEShared the administration with his queen. The couple sheltered their citizens in the royal palace during a severe famine resulting from heavy frost. After his death, the queen committed sati. The couple died childless.
Vijaya8 years67 BCEFrom a different dynasty than Tungjina.
Jayendra37 years59 BCESon of Vijaya: his "long arms reached to his knees". His flatters instigated him against his minister Sandhimati. The minister was persecuted, and ultimately imprisoned because of rumors that he would succeed the king. Sandhimati remained in prison for 10 years. In his old age, the childless king ordered killing of Sandhimati to prevent any chance of him becoming a king. He died after hearing about the false news of Sandhimati's death.
Sandhimati alias Aryaraja47 years22 BCESandhimati was selected by the citizens as the new ruler. He ascended the throne reluctantly, at the request of his guru Ishana. He was a devout Shaivite, and his reign was marked by peace. He filled his court with rishis, and spent his time in forest retreats. Therefore, his ministers replaced him with Meghavahana, a descendant of Yudhishthira I. He willingly gave up the throne.

Book 3: Restored Gonandiya dynasty

RulerReignAscension yearNotes
Meghavahana34 years25 CEMeghavahana was the son of Yudhisthira I's great grandson, who had been granted asylum by Gopaditya, the king of Gandhara. Meghavahana had been selected the husband of a Vaishnavite princess at a Swayamvara in another kingdom. The ministers of Kashmir brought him to Kashmir after Sandhimati proved to be an unwilling king. Meghavahana banned animal slaughter and compensated those who earned their living through hunting. He patrnozed Brahmins, and set up a monastery. His queens built Buddhist viharas and monasteries. He subdued kings in regions as far as Sinhala Kingdom, forcing them to abandon animal slaughter.
Shreshtasena 30 years59 CESon of Meghavahana
Hiranya30 years, 2 months89 CESon of Shreshtasena, assisted by his brother and co-regent Toramana. The king imprisoned Toramana, when the latter stuck royal coins in his own name. Toramana's son Pravarasena, who had been brought up in secrecy by his mother Anjana, freed him. Hiranya died childless. Several coins of a king named Toramana have been found in the Kashmir region. This king is identified by some with Huna ruler Toramana, although his successor Mihirakula is placed much earlier by Kalhana.
Matrigupta4 years, 9 months, 1 day120 CEAccording to Kalhana, the emperor Vikramditya of Ujjayini defeated the Shakas, and made his friend and poet Matrigupta the ruler of Kashmir. After Vikramaditya's death, Matrigupta abdicated the throne in favour of Pravarasena. According to D. C. Sircar, Kalhana has confused the legendary Vikramaditya of Ujjain with the Vardhana Emperor Harsha. The latter is identified with Shiladitya mentioned in Xuanzang's account. However, according to M. A. Stein, Kalhana's Vikramaditya is another Shiladitya mentioned in Xuanzang's account: a king of Malwa around 580 CE.
Pravarasena II60 years125 CEHistorical evidence suggests that a king named Pravarasena ruled Kashmir in the 6th century CE. According to Kalhana, Pravarasena subdued many other kings, in lands as far as Saurashtra. He restored the rule of Vikramaditya's son Pratapshila, who had been expelled from Ujjain by his enemies. Pratapshila agreed to be a vassal of Pravarasena after initial resistance. He founded a city called Pravarapura, which is identified by later historians as the modern city of Srinagar on the basis topographical details.
Yudhishthira II39 years, 8 months185 CESon of Pravarasena
Narendraditya I 13 years206 CESon of Yudhishthira II and Padmavati
Ranaditya I 300 years219 CEYounger brother of Narendraditya. His queen Ranarambha was an incarnation of Bhramaravasini. The Chola king Ratisena had found her among the waves, during an ocean worship ritual.
Vikramaditya42 years519 CESon of Ranaditya
Baladitya36 years, 8 months561 CEYounger brother of Vikramaditya. He subdued several enemies. An astrologer prophesied that his son-in-law would succeed him as the king. To avoid this outcome, the king married his daughter Anangalekha to Durlabhavardhana, a handsome but non-royal man from Ashvaghama Kayastha caste.

Book 4: Karkota dynasty

RulerReignAscension yearNotes
Durlabhavardhana 38 years598 CEBorn to Nāga Karkota, Durlabhavardhana was Baladitya's officer in charge of fodder. Baladitya married his daughter Anangalekha to him. As the royal son-in-law, he became known as a just and wise man, and was given the title "Prajnaditya" by the king. His wife Anangalekha became involved in an extra-marital affair with the minister Kharga. Despite catching them sleeping together, Durlabhavardhana forgave Khankha, and won over his loyalty. After Baladitya's death, Khankha crowned him the new king.
Durlabhaka 60 years634 CESon of Durlabhavardhana and Anangalekha. He was adopted as a son by his maternal grandfather, and assumed the title Pratapaditya after the title of the grandfather's dynasty.
Chandrapida 8 years, 8 months684 CESon of Durlabhaka and Shrinarendraprabha.
Tarapida 4 years, 24 days693 CEYounger brother of Chandrapida.
Muktapida 36 years, 7 months, 11 days697 CEYounger brother of Chandrapida and Tarapida. According to the historical evidence, Lalitaditya Muktapida ruled during the 8th century. Kalhana states that Lalitaditya Muktapida conquered the tribes of the north and after defeating the Kambojas, he immediately faced the Tusharas. The Tusharas did not give a fight but fled to the mountain ranges leaving their horses in the battle field. Then Lalitaditiya meets the Bhauttas in Baltistan in western Tibet north of Kashmir, then the Daradas in Karakoram/Himalaya, the Valukambudhi and then he subdues Strirajya, the Uttar Kuru/Western China and the Pragjyotisha respectively. According to some historians, Kalhana has highly exaggerated the military conquests of Muktapida.
Kuvalayapida1 year, 15 days733 CESon of Lalitaditya and Kamaladevi. His short reign was marked by a succession struggle with his half-brother Vajraditya II. He abdicated the throne, and a became a hermit to seek peace.
Vajraditya II 7 years734 CESon of Lalitaditya and Chakramardika. He was a cruel and immoral person, who introduced the evil habits of mlechchhas to Kashmir.
Prithivyapida I4 years, 1 month741 CESon of Vajraditya II and Mangjarika. Deposed by his half-brother Sangramapida.
Sangramapida I7 days745 CESon of Vajraditya II and Massa. Deposed his half-brother to become the king, but died after a week.
Jayapida ; Jajja31 years; 3 years745 CEYoungest son of Vajradjtya II. He erected a monument at Prayaga, which existed at Kalhana's time. His wife Kalyanadevi was the daughter of Jayanta, the king Pundravardhana in Gauda region. Jayapida subdued five kings of Gauda, and made them vassals of his father-in-law. On his way back to Kashmir, he also defeated the king of Kanyakubja. While Jayapida was in Gauda, his brother-in-law usurped the throne in Kashmir. After three years of ruling Kashmir, Jajja was killed by Shrideva, a supporter of Jayapida. Jayapida became the king once again, and patronized scholars. He waged wars against Bhimasena of the East and Aramuri of Nepala. In both instances, he was first imprisoned by the enemy king, but managed to escape and defeated the enemy. During the last years of his reign, he imposed excessive taxes on advice of Kayasthas, and treated his subjects cruelly. He died because of a curse by a Brahmin.
Lalitapida12 years776 CESon of Jayapida and Durgi. He devoted his time to sensual pleasures, and neglected royal duties.
Sangramapida II 7 years788 CESon of Jayapida and Kalyana.
Chippatajayapida 12 years795 CESon of Lalitapida and his concubine Jayadevi. The actual power was in hands of Jayadevi's brothers Padma, Utpalaka, Kalyana, Mamma and Dharmma.
Ajitapida37 years813 CESon of Lalitapida and Jayadevi, made the king by his maternal uncle Utpalaka. Dethroned by Utpalaka's rival Mamma and the latter's son Yashovarman.
Anangapida3 years849 CESon of Sangramapida II. Made king by Mamma and Yashovarman.
Utpalapida2 years852 CESon of Ajitapida. Made king by Sukhavarman, the son of Utpala. Deposed by the minister Shura.

Book 5

RulerReignAscension yearNotes
Avantivarman855 CESon of Sukhavarman. Made king by the minister Shura. Established the city of Avantipura
Shankaravarman883 CEAccording to Kalhana, this king "did not speak the language of the gods but used vulgar speech fit for drunkards, showed that he was descended from a family of spirit-distillers". This refers to the fact that the power had passed to the brothers of a queen, who was born in a family of spirit-distillers.
Gopalavarman2 years902 CESon of Shankaravarman; ruled with help of his mother Sugandha; Murdered
Sankata10 days904 CEBrother of Gopalavarman, died soon after ascending the throne
Sugandha2 years904 CEBecame queen after the death of all male heirs. Deposed by Tantrin soldiers, who had earlier served as the royal bodyguards. Waged a war against the Tantrins with help of their rivals, but was defeated and killed.
Partha906 CE10-year-old child of Nirjitavarman; placed on throne by the Tantrins
Nirjitavarman921 CEHalf-brother of Avantivarman.
Chakravarman922 CEPurchased the throne from the Tantrins
Shuravarman I1 year933 CEPurchased the throne from the Tantrins
Partha 934 CEPurchased the throne from the Tantrins
Chakravarman 935 CEPurchased the throne from the Tantrins
Shankaravardhana -Purchased the throne from the Tantrins
Chakravarman 935 CEDefeated the Tantrins with help of Damara feudal lords. An unpopular king, he was killed.
Unmattavanti 937 CESon of Partha. Murdered his father, and starved his half-brothers to death.
Shuravarman II939 CESonf of Unmattavanti

Book 6

RulerAscension yearNotes
Yashaskara-deva939 CEElected by a council of Brahmins
Varnata948 CE
Sangramadeva 948 CEMurdered by the divira Parvagupta, who had become a regent-minister
Parvagupta948 CEStrong but unpopular ruler
Kshemagupta950 CESon of Parvagupta and husband of Didda. Didda and/or her relatives ran the administration.
Abhimanyu II958 CERuled with his mother Didda as regent, aided by the minister Naravahana. Died young.
Nandigupta972 CEDidda's grandson, deposed by her
Tribhuvanagupta973 CEDidda's grandson, deposed by her
Bhimagupta975 CEDidda's grandson, deposed by her
Didda980 CEWife of Kshemagupta
After a young son of Yashaskara, Pravaragupta, a Divira, became king. His son Kshemagupta married Didda, daughter of Simharaja of Lohara. After ruling indirectly and directly, Didda placed Samgramaraja, son of her brother on the throne, starting the Lohara dynasty.

Book 7: First Lohara dynasty

RulerReignAscension yearNotes
Sangramaraja 1003 CENephew of Didda. Ascended the throne after her death, beginning Lohara dynasty's rule over Kashmir
Hariraja22 days1028 CE
Ananta-deva1028 CEAbdicated the throne in favour of his son, but retained power through his minister Haladhara
Kalasha 1063 CERebelled against his parents, leading to the suicide of his father Ananta, followed by sati-suicide by his mother. His son Harsha revolted against him, and was imprisoned.
Utkarsha22 days1089 CESecond son of Kalasha. His half-brother Vijaymalla rebelled against him, and got Harsha released from prison. Utkarsha was imprisoned and committed suicide
Harshadied in 1101 CEIn his early years, he was a sagacious king, and a patron of art and literature. The later years of his reign were marked by unsuccessful military campaigns, resulting in excessive taxation and plundering of temples. Revolts by his generals Uchchala and Sussala ended his reign. His son Bhoja was killed, and Harsha himself was killed by Uchchala's men while hiding in a village.

Book 8: Second Lohara dynasty

RulerNotes
UchchalaMade his brother Sussala the ruler of Lohara. Murdered by Radda.
Radda Usurped the throne, claiming to be a descendant of Yashaskara
SalhanaUchchala's step-brother; became the king after Radda's death. The real power lay in the hands of a noble named Gargachandra. Salhana was deposed and imprisoned.
SussalaUchchala's brother; ascended throne with Gargachandra's support
BhikshacharaHarsha's grandson, who had escaped Uchchala's revolt. Brought up by Naravarman, the king of Malava. Deposed Sussala.
Sussala Within 6 months of Bhikshachara's ascension, Sussala recovered his capital, leading to a civil war
Jayasimha Sussala's son. In the early years of his reign, the actual power was held by Sussala. Kalhana's account closes in the 22nd year of his reign.

Evaluation

Literary

Kalhana was an educated and sophisticated Sanskrit scholar, well-connected in the highest political circles. His writing is full of literary devices and allusions, concealed by his unique and elegant style.

Historical reliability

Despite the value that historians have placed on Kalhana's work, there is little evidence of authenticity in the earlier books of Rajatarangini. For example, Ranaditya is given a reign of 300 years. Toramana is clearly the Huna king of that name, but his father Mihirakula is given a date 700 years earlier. Even where the kings mentioned in the first three books are historically attested, Kalhana's account suffers from chronological errors.
Kalhana's account starts to align with other historical evidence only by Book 4, which gives an account of the Karkota dynasty. But even this account is not fully reliable from a historical point of view. For example, Kalhana has highly exaggerated the military conquests of Lalitaditya Muktapida.

Sequels

; Rajatarangini by Jonaraja
; Jaina-Rajatarangini by Srivara
; Rajavalipataka by Prajyabhatta
; Chaturtha Rajatarangini by Suka

Translations

A Persian translation of Rajatarangini was commissioned by Zain-ul-Abidin, who ruled Kashmir in the 15th century CE.
Horace Hayman Wilson partially translated the work, and wrote an essay based on it, titled The Hindu History of Kashmir. Subsequent English translations of Kalhana's Rajatarangini include:
Translations in other languages include:
Several books containing legendary stories from Rajatarangini have been compiled by various authors. These include:
A television series based on Rajatarangini named Meeras was begun in 1986 in Doordarshan Srinagar.