Papal appointment
Papal appointment was a medieval method of selecting a pope. Popes have always been selected by a council of Church fathers, however, Papal selection before 1059 was often characterized by confirmation or "nomination" by secular European rulers or by their predecessors. The later procedures of the papal conclave are in large part designed to constrain the interference of secular rulers which characterized the first millennium of the Roman Catholic Church, and persisted in practices such as the creation of crown-cardinals and the jus exclusivae. Appointment might have taken several forms, with a variety of roles for the laity and civic leaders, Byzantine and Germanic emperors, and noble Roman families. The role of the election vis-a-vis the general population and the clergy was prone to vary considerably, with a nomination carrying weight that ranged from near total to a mere suggestion or ratification of a prior election.
The institution has its origins in late antiquity, where on more than one occasion the emperor stepped in to resolve disputes over the legitimacy of papal contenders. An important precedent from this period is an edict of Emperor Honorius, issued after a synod he convoked to depose Antipope Eulalius. The power passed to the King of the Ostrogoths, then the Byzantine Emperor. After an interregnum, the Kings of the Franks and the Holy Roman Emperor, generally assumed the role of confirming the results of papal elections. For a period, the power passed from the Emperor to powerful Roman nobles—the Crescentii and then the Counts of Tusculum.
In many cases, the papal coronation was delayed until the election had been confirmed. Some antipopes were similarly appointed. The practice ended with the conclusion of the Investiture Controversy due largely to the efforts of Cardinal Hildebrand, who was a guiding force in the selection of his four predecessors, and the 1059 papal bull In Nomine Domini of Pope Nicholas II; some writers consider this practice to be an extreme form of "investiture" in and of itself.
Although the practice was forbidden by the Council of Antioch and the Council of Rome, the bishops of Rome, as with other bishops, often exercised a great deal of control over their successor, even after the sixth century. In addition, most popes from the fourth to twelfth century were appointed or confirmed by a secular power.
Ancient Rome
As to the earliest ages, St. Peter himself constituted a senate for the Roman Church, consisting of twenty-four priests and deacons. These were the councillors of the Bishop of Rome and the electors of his successors. This statement is drawn from a canon in the "Corpus Juris Canonici". Historians and canonists, however, generally hold that the Roman bishopric was filled on its vacancy in the same manner as other bishoprics, that is, the election of the new pope was made by the neighbouring bishops and the clergy and faithful of Rome. Nevertheless, some maintain that the naming of the successor of St. Peter was restricted to the Roman clergy, and that the people were admitted to a part in the elections only after the time of Sylvester I.After Constantine had given peace to the Church, the Christian Roman emperors often took part in the institution of a new pope and at times their influence was very marked. From the fourth century onwards, therefore, a new force had to be reckoned with. The occasion for the interference of the Roman emperors and later of the kings of Italy was afforded by disputed elections to the papal chair. The most noted of the earlier instance was at the election of Boniface I. This gave occasion to the decree that when an election was disputed a new candidate should be chosen.
Ostrogoths
On November 22, 498, both Pope Symmachus and Antipope Laurentius were elected pope; both Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I and the Gothic King Theodoric the Great originally supported Laurentius, who was installed in the Lateran Palace, but Symmachus prevailed when Theodoric expelled Laurentius from Rome, fearing that he was too influenced by the Byzantine ruler.| Appointer | Pope | Pontificate | Notes |
| Theodoric the Great/Athalaric | Felix IV | July 13, 526 to September 22, 530 | "On Theodoric's recommendation, Felix was elected pope, and his election was confirmed by Athalaric, the successor of Theodoric" Appointed "for all practical purposes" by Theodoric |
| Pope Felix III/Athalaric | Boniface II | September 17, 530 to October 532 | Appointment meant to avoid split between "Byzantine" and "Gothic" factions |
| Athalaric | John II | January 2, 533 to May 8, 535 | During the sede vacante of over two months, "shameless trafficking in sacred things was indulged in. Even sacred vessels were exposed for sale. The matter was brought before the Senate, and before the Arian Ostrogothic Court at Ravenna" |
| Theodahad | Agapetus I | May 13, 535 to April 22, 536 | "Theodahad was well placed to coerce the new pope Agapetus, for he had been elected with his support" |
| Theodahad | Silverius | June 8, 536 to June 20, 537 | Legitimate son of Pope Hormisdas |
Byzantine
| Appointer | Pope | Pontificate | Notes |
| Justinian I | Vigilius | March 29, 537 to 555 | Previously appointed by his successor Pope Boniface II |
| Justinian I | Pelagius I | April 16, 556 to March 4, 561 | "Pelagius, as the nominee of Justinian, at once succeeded on his arrival in Rome, but most of the clergy, suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some share in the unlooked-for removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship, and only two bishops and presbyter could be got to take part in his ordination to the pontificate" |
| Justinian I | John III | July 17, 561 to July 13, 574 | "At the death of Pelagius I, Rome had been under Byzantine control for many years, and according to the procedure imposed by Constantinople, the name of the elected candidate had to be submitted to the emperor for approval. This explains the long vacancy " |
| Justin II | Benedict I | June 2, 575 to June 30, 579 | "The ravages of the Lombards rendered it very difficult to communicate with the emperor at Constantinople, who claimed the privilege of confirming the election of the popes. Hence there was a vacancy of nearly eleven months between the death of John III and the arrival of the imperial confirmation of Benedict's election, 2 June, 575." |
| Tiberius II Constantine | Pelagius II | November 26, 579 to February 7, 590 | "He succeeded Benedict I, when the Lombards were besieging Rome, but his consecration was delayed in the hope of securing the confirmation of the election by the emperor. But the blockade of Rome by the Lombards, and their control of the great thoroughfares was effective and, after four months, he was consecrated." |
| Maurice | Gregory I | September 3, 590 to March 12, 604 | "The choice of a successor lay with the clergy and people of Rome, and without any hesitation they elected Gregory wrote personally to the Emperor Maurice, begging him with all earnestness not to confirm the election. Germanus, prefect of the city, suppresses this letter, however, and sent instead of it the formal schedule of the election. In the interval while awaiting the emperor's reply the business of the vacant see was transacted by Gregory At length, after six months of waiting, came the emperor's confirmation of Gregory's election." |
| Phocas | Sabinian | September 13, 604 to February 22, 606 | " chosen to succeed Gregory soon after the death of that great pontiff; but as the imperial confirmation of his election did not arrive for some months, he was not consecrated till September." |
| Phocas | Boniface III | February 19, 607 to November 12, 607 | " as apocrisiarius, or legate, to the court of Constantinople, where, by his tact and prudence, he appears to have gained the favourable regard of the Emperor Phocas" |
| Phocas | Boniface IV | August 25, 608 to May 8, 615 | "Boniface obtained leave from the Emperor Phocas " |
| Heraclius | Severinus | October 638 to August 2, 640 | "Severinus was elected and envoys were at once sent to Constantinople, to obtain the confirmation of his election. But the emperor, instead of granting the confirmation, ordered Severinus to sign his Ecthesis This the pope-elect refused to do Meanwhile his envoys at Constantinople, finally secured the imperial confirmation." |
Exarchate of Ravenna
Byzantine
Exarchate of Ravenna
Frankish interregnum
Kings of the Franks/Holy Roman Empire
Counts of Tusculum
| Appointer | Pope | Pontificate | Notes |
| Marozia, Senatrix of Rome | Sergius III | January 29, 904 to April 14, 911 | Mistress of Marozia |
| Marozia, Senatrix of Rome | John X | March 914 to May 928 | Appointed and then deposed by Marozia |
| Marozia, Senatrix of Rome | Leo VI | May 928 to December 928 | |
| Marozia, Senatrix of Rome | Stephen VII | December 928 to February 931 | |
| Marozia, Senatrix of Rome | John XI | February/March 931 to December 935 | Illegitimate son of Pope Sergius III and Marozia, and half-brother of Alberic II |
| Alberic II of Spoleto, Senator of Rome | Leo VII | 3 January 936 to 13 July 939 | Cooperated with Henry I and Otto I |
| Alberic II of Spoleto, Senator of Rome | Marinus II | October 30, 942 to May 946 | " he was one of the popes placed on the throne of St. Peter by the power of Alberic, Prince of the Romans " |
| Alberic II of Spoleto, Senator of Rome | Agapetus II | May 10, 946 to December 955 | "The temporal power had practically vanished and Rome was ruled by the vigorous Princeps and Senator Albericht, who was the prototype of the later Italian tyrants." |
| Alberic II of Spoleto, Senator of Rome | John XII | December 16, 955 to May 14, 964 | Son of Alberic II "During his lifetime, his successor was virtually appointed in the person of Albericht's notorious son Octavian, later John XII, whose father forced the Romans to swear that they would elect him as their temporal and spiritual lord upon the demise of Agapetus." |
Holy Roman Empire
| Appointer | Pope | Pontificate | Notes |
| None* | Benedict V | May 22, 964 to June 23, 964 | "Benedict V was elected pope in very critical circumstances. The powerful emperor, Otho I, had forcibly deposed John XII, and had replaced him by a nominee of his own who took the title of Leo VIII. But the Romans expelled Leo, and on the death of John XII, elected Benedict Otho marched on Rome, seized Benedict, and put an end to his pontificate After reinstating Leo, Otho left Rome and carried Benedict with him to Germany." |
| Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor | Leo VIII | July 964 to March 1, 965 | Sometimes considered an antipope for the first year of his papacy |
| Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor | John XIII | October 1, 965 to September 6, 972 | Brother of Crescentius the Elder "In presence of the imperial envoys, Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona, and Otgar, Bishop of Speyer, the emperor's candidate, John, Bishop of Narni, was elected pope, and crowned on 1 October, 965, as John XIII." |
| Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor | Benedict VI | January 19, 973 to June 974 | Deposed and strangled by Crescentius the Elder " the necessity of waiting for the ratification of the Emperor Otho delayed his consecration till 19 January, 973." |
| Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor | Benedict VII | October 974 to July 10, 983 | Elected by the Roman clergy through the influence of Siccio, envoy of Otto II Related to Alberic II of Spoleto, the Count of Tusculum and the Crescentii |
| Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor | John XIV | December 983 to August 20, 984 | "After the death of Benedict VII, Bishop Peter Campanora of Pavia, earlier imperial chancellor of Italy, was elected pope with the consent of Emperor Otto II " |
| Unknown; existence is disputed | John XV | August 985 to March 996 | Crescentius the Younger as Patricius Romanorum likely interfered in the succession of John XV, if, in fact, it occurred "John remained throughout his pontificate under the influence of the powerful patricius, though he maintained friendly relations with the German court and with both empresses-Adelaide, widow of Otto I, and Theophano, widow of Otto II." |
| Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor | Gregory V | 996 to 999 | Cousin of Otto III; Crescentius the Younger and the Roman clergy did not choose a successor to John XV immediately, but rather deferred to Otto III to select one. |
| Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor | Sylvester II | April 2, 999 to May 12, 1003 |
Crescentii
, the brother of Pope John XIII, had previously deposed and had strangled Pope Benedict VI, and helped install Antipope Boniface VII in Rome in opposition to the imperial candidates, Pope Benedict VII and Pope John XIV, the latter of which perished in the Castel Sant'Angelo like Benedict V. Crescentius the Younger, the son of Crescentius the Elder, likely had a strong hand in the election of Pope John XV, although the details of that papacy are incomplete and disputed. However, it is known that Crescentius the Younger deferred to Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor for the choice of the successor of John XV: Pope Gregory V, Otto III's cousin. Yet, not long afterward, disputes with the emperor and Gregory V caused Crescentius the Younger to support Antipope John XVI, who was deposed with some difficulty by Otto III, who proceeded to have John XVI mutilated and Crescentius the Younger killed.Three years later, after a revolt in Rome involving John Crescentius, the son of Crescentius the Younger, Otto III and Pope Sylvester II were expelled from Rome; the three successors of Sylvester II were appointed by John Crescentius before he died in the spring of 1012, nearly simultaneously with Sergius IV, allowing the Counts of Tusculum to displace the Crescentii.
| Appointer | Pope | Pontificate | Notes |
| John Crescentius | John XVII | June 1003 to December 1003 | Began in opposition to Gregory V |
| John Crescentius | John XVIII | December 25, 1003 to July 1009 | "He, too, owed his elevation to the influence of Crescentius." |
| John Crescentius | Sergius IV | July 31, 1009 to May 12, 1012 |
Counts of Tusculum
Unlike the Tusculan popes during the "Pornocracy", Benedict VIII, John XIX, and Benedict IX were the Count of Tusculum themselves immediately prior to their becoming pope. Benedict VIII subjugated the Crescentii and made peace with the Holy Roman Empire, crowning Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor on February 14, 1014, nearly two years after his accession to the papacy.| Appointer | Pope | Pontificate | Notes |
| Counts of Tusculum | Benedict VIII | May 18, 1012 to April 9, 1024 | Count of Tusculum immediately prior to becoming pope " though a layman, imposed on the chair of Peter by force " |
| Counts of Tusculum | John XIX | April/May 1024 to October 20, 1032 | Count of Tusculum immediately prior to becoming pope; brother of Benedict VIII |
| Counts of Tusculum | Benedict IX | 1032 to 1044 | Count of Tusculum immediately prior to becoming pope; nephew of his two immediate predecessors as the son of their brother, Alberic III, Count of Tusculum "Regarding it as a sort of heirloom, his father Alberic placed him upon when a mere youth, not, however, apparently of only twelve years of age " First term; abdicated twice for financial reward |
Holy Roman Empire
| Appointer | Pope | Pontificate | Notes |
| Henry III | Clement II | December 25, 1046 to October 9, 1047 | Proceeded to crown Henry III; first "German Pope" |
| Henry III | Damasus II | July 17, 1048 to August 9, 1048 | With the concurrence of Boniface III of Tuscany |
| Henry III | Leo IX | February 12, 1048 to April 19, 1054 | Selected by the emperor at an assembly in Worms with the concurrence of Roman nobles, with the subsequent assent of the Roman clergy; Cousin of the emperor; brought Hildebrand to Rome with him. |
| Henry III | Victor II | April 13, 1055 to July 28, 1057 | "After the death of Leo IX Cardinal-subdeacon Hildebrand came to the emperor at the head of a Roman legation with the urgent request to designate Gebhard as pope. At the Diet of Mainz, in September, 1054, the emperor granted this request, but Gebhard refused to accept the papal dignity. At a court Diet held at Ratisbon in March, 1055, he finally accepted the papacy, but only on condition that the emperor restored to the Apostolic See all the possessions that had been taken from it. The emperor consented to this condition and Gebhard accompanied Hildebrand to Rome, where he was formally elected and solemnly enthroned on Maundy Thursday , 13 April 1055, taking the name of Victor II." |
| None | Stephen IX | August 2, 1057 to March 29, 1058 | "He was made cardinal-priest of St. Chrysogonus by Victor II, and, on the latter's death, he was freely chosen his successor, and consecrated on the following day." |
| None | Nicholas II | December 6, 1058 to July 27, 1061 | Promulgated In Nomine Domini "As soon as the news of the death of Stephen X at Florence reached Rome. the Tusculan party appointed a successor in the person of John Mincius, Bishop of Velletri, under the name of Benedict X. His elevation, due to violence and corruption, was contrary to the specific orders of Stephen X that, at his death, no choice of a successor was to be made until Hildebrand's return from Germany. Several cardinals protested against the irregular proceedings, but they were compelled to flee from Rome. Hildebrand was returning from his mission when the news of these events reached him. He interrupted his journey at Florence, and after agreeing with Duke Godfrey of Lorraine-Tuscany upon Bishop Gerhard for elevation to the papacy, he won over part of the Roman population to the support of his candidate. An embassy dispatched to the imperial court secured the confirmation of the choice by the Empress Agnes. At Hildebrand's invitation, the cardinals met in December, 1058, at Siena and elected Gerhard who assumed the name of Nicholas II. On his way to Rome the new pope held at Sutri a well-attended synod at which, in the presence of Duke Godfrey and the imperial chancellor, Guibert of Parma, he pronounced deposition against Benedict X." |
| Burchard II, Bishop of Halberstadt* | Alexander II | September 30, 1061 to April 21, 1073 | "Alexander's election was confirmed by an envoy" |
| Henry IV* | Gregory VII | April 22, 1073 to May 25, 1085 | "Last pope whose election was confirmed by the Emperor" |
| Lothair III* | Innocent II | February 14, 1130 to September 24, 1143 | " the election of Innocent was ratified at a synod assembled at Würzburg at the request of the German king " |