Minkowski space
In mathematical physics, Minkowski space is a combination of three-dimensional Euclidean space and time into a four-dimensional manifold where the spacetime interval between any two events is independent of the inertial frame of reference in which they are recorded. Although initially developed by mathematician Hermann Minkowski for Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, the mathematical structure of Minkowski spacetime was shown to be an immediate consequence of the postulates of special relativity.
Minkowski space is closely associated with Einstein's theory of special relativity and is the most common mathematical structure on which special relativity is formulated. While the individual components in Euclidean space and time may differ due to length contraction and time dilation, in Minkowski spacetime, all frames of reference will agree on the total distance in spacetime between events. Because it treats time differently than it treats the 3 spatial dimensions, Minkowski space differs from four-dimensional Euclidean space.
In 3-dimensional Euclidean space, the isometry group is the Euclidean group. It is generated by rotations, reflections and translations. When time is amended as a fourth dimension, the further transformations of translations in time and Galilean boosts are added, and the group of all these transformations is called the Galilean group. All Galilean transformations preserve the 3-dimensional Euclidean distance. This distance is purely spatial. Time differences are separately preserved as well. This changes in the spacetime of special relativity, where space and time are interwoven.
Spacetime is equipped with an indefinite non-degenerate bilinear form, variously called the Minkowski metric, the Minkowski norm squared or Minkowski inner product depending on the context. The Minkowski inner product is defined so as to yield the spacetime interval between two events when given their coordinate difference vector as argument. Equipped with this inner product, the mathematical model of spacetime is called Minkowski space. The analogue of the Galilean group for Minkowski space, preserving the spacetime interval is the Poincaré group.
In summary, Galilean spacetime and Minkowski spacetime are, when viewed as manifolds, actually the same. They differ in what further structures are defined on them. The former has the Euclidean distance function and time together with inertial frames whose coordinates are related by Galilean transformations, while the latter has the Minkowski metric together with inertial frames whose coordinates are related by Poincaré transformations.
History
Complex Minkowski space-time
In his second relativity paper in 1905-06 Henri Poincaré showed how, by taking time to be an imaginary fourth spacetime coordinate, where is the speed of light and is the imaginary unit, Lorentz transformations can be visualized as ordinary rotations of the four dimensional Euclidean spherePoincaré actually set for convenience. Rotations in planes spanned by two space unit vectors appear in coordinate space as well as in physical space time as Euclidean rotations and are interpreted in the ordinary sense. The "rotation" in a plane spanned by a space unit vector and a time unit vector, while formally still a rotation in coordinate space, is a Lorentz boost in physical spacetime with real inertial coordinates. The analogy with Euclidean rotations is only partial since the radius of the sphere is actually imaginary which turns rotations into rotations in hyperbolic space.
This idea which was mentioned only very briefly by Poincaré, was elaborated in great detail by Minkowski in an extensive and influential paper in German in 1908 called "The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies". Minkowski using this formulation restated the then recent theory of relativity of Einstein. In particular by restating the Maxwell equations as a symmetrical set of equations in the four variables combined with redefined vector variables for electromagnetic quantities, he was able to show directly and very simply their invariance under Lorentz transformation. He also made other important contributions and used matrix notation for the first time in this context.
From his reformulation he concluded that time and space should be treated equally, and so arose his concept of events taking place in a unified four-dimensional spacetime continuum.
Real Minkowski space-time
In a further development in his 1908 "Space and Time" lecture, Minkowski gave an alternative formulation of this idea that used a real time coordinate instead of an imaginary one, representing the four variables of space and time in coordinate form in a four dimensional real vector space. Points in this space correspond to events in spacetime. In this space, there is a defined light-cone associated with each point, and events not on the light-cone are classified by their relation to the apex as spacelike or timelike. It is principally this view of spacetime that is current nowadays, although the older view involving imaginary time has also influenced special relativity.In the English translation of Minkowski's paper, the Minkowski metric as defined below is referred to as the line element. The Minkowski inner product of below appears unnamed when referring to orthogonality of certain vectors, and the Minkowski norm squared is referred to as "sum".
Minkowski's principal tool is the Minkowski diagram, and he uses it to define concepts and demonstrate properties of Lorentz transformations and to provide geometrical interpretation to the generalization of Newtonian mechanics to relativistic mechanics. For these special topics, see the referenced articles, as the presentation below will be principally confined to the mathematical structure following from the invariance of the spacetime interval on the spacetime manifold as consequences of the postulates of special relativity, not to specific application or derivation of the invariance of the spacetime interval. This structure provides the background setting of all present relativistic theories, barring general relativity for which flat Minkowski spacetime still provides a springboard as curved spacetime is locally Lorentzian.
Minkowski, aware of the fundamental restatement of the theory which he had made, said
Though Minkowski took an important step for physics, Albert Einstein saw its limitation:
For further historical information see references, and.
Causal structure
Where is velocity, and,, and are Cartesian coordinates in 3-dimensional space, and is the constant representing the universal speed limit, and t is time, the four-dimensional vector is classified according to the sign of. A vector is timelike if, spacelike if, and null or lightlike if. This can be expressed in terms of the sign of as well, but depends on the signature. The classification of any vector will be the same in all frames of reference that are related by a Lorentz transformation because of the invariance of the interval.The set of all null vectors at an event of Minkowski space constitutes the light cone of that event. Given a timelike vector, there is a worldline of constant velocity associated with it, represented by a straight line in a Minkowski diagram.
Once a direction of time is chosen, timelike and null vectors can be further decomposed into various classes. For timelike vectors one has
- future-directed timelike vectors whose first component is positive, and
- past-directed timelike vectors whose first component is negative.
- the zero vector, whose components in any basis are ,
- future-directed null vectors whose first component is positive, and
- past-directed null vectors whose first component is negative.
An orthonormal basis for Minkowski space necessarily consists of one timelike and three spacelike unit vectors. If one wishes to work with non-orthonormal bases it is possible to have other combinations of vectors. For example, one can easily construct a basis consisting entirely of null vectors, called a null basis.
Vector fields are called timelike, spacelike or null if the associated vectors are timelike, spacelike or null at each point where the field is defined.
Properties of time-like vectors
Time-like vectors have special importance in the theory of relativity as they correspond to events whichare accessible to the observer at with a speed less than that of light.
Of most interest are time-like vectors which are similarly directed i.e.all either in the forward or in the backward cones. Such vectors have several properties not shared by space-like vectors. These arise
because both forward and backward cones are convex whereas the space-like region is not convex.
Scalar product
The scalar product of two time-like vectors having suffixes 1, 2 isPositivity of scalar product: An important property is that the scalar product of two similarly directed time-like vectors is always positive. This can be seen from the reversed Cauchy inequality below. It follows that if the scalar product of two vectors is zero then one of these at least, must be space-like. The scalar product of two space-like vectors can be positive or negative as can be seen by considering the product of two space-like vectors having orthogonal spatial components and times either
of different or the same signs.
Using the positivity property of time-like vectors it is easy to verify that a linear sum with positive coefficients of similarly directed time-like vectors is also similarly directed time-like.
Norm and reversed Cauchy inequality
The norm of a time-like vector is defined asThe reversed Cauchy inequality is another consequence of the convexity of either light-cone. For two distinct similarly directed time-like vectors u having suffices 1, 2 this inequality is
or algebraically,
From this the positivity property of the scalar product can be seen.
The reversed triangle inequality
For two similarly directed time-like vectors and, the inequality iswhere the equality holds when the vectors are linearly dependent.
The proof uses the algebraic definition with the reversed Cauchy inequality:
The result now follows by taking the square roots on both sides.
Mathematical structure
It is assumed below that spacetime is endowed with a coordinate system corresponding to an inertial frame. This provides an origin, which is necessary in order to be able to refer to spacetime as being modeled as a vector space. This is not really physically motivated in that a canonical origin should exist. One can get away with less structure, that of an affine space, but this would needlessly complicate the discussion and would not reflect how flat spacetime is normally treated mathematically in modern introductory literature.For an overview, Minkowski space is a -dimensional real vector space equipped with a nondegenerate, symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space at each point in spacetime, here simply called the Minkowski inner product, with metric signature either or. The tangent space at each event is a vector space of the same dimension as spacetime,.
Tangent vectors
In practice, one need not be concerned with the tangent spaces. The vector space nature of Minkowski space allows for the canonical identification of vectors in tangent spaces at points with vectors in Minkowski space itself. See e.g. These identifications are routinely done in mathematics. They can be expressed formally in Cartesian coordinates aswith basis vectors in the tangent spaces defined by
Here and are any two events and the last identification is referred to as parallel transport. The first identification is the canonical identification of vectors in the tangent space at any point with vectors in the space itself. The appearance of basis vectors in tangent spaces as first order differential operators is due to this identification. It is motivated by the observation that a geometrical tangent vector can be associated in a one-to-one manner with a directional derivative operator on the set of smooth functions. This is promoted to a definition of tangent vectors in manifolds not necessarily being embedded in. This definition of tangent vectors is not the only possible one as ordinary n-tuples can be used as well.
A tangent vector at a point may be defined, here specialized to Cartesian coordinates in Lorentz frames, as column vectors associated to each Lorentz frame related by Lorentz transformation such that the vector in a frame related to some frame by transforms according to. This is the same way in which the coordinates transform. Explicitly,
This definition is equivalent to the definition given above under a canonical isomorphism.
For some purposes it is desirable to identify tangent vectors at a point with displacement vectors at, which is, of course, admissible by essentially the same canonical identification. The identifications of vectors referred to above in the mathematical setting can correspondingly be found in a more physical and explicitly geometrical setting in. They offer various degree of sophistication depending on which part of the material one chooses to read.
Metric signature
The metric signature refers to which sign the Minkowski inner product yields when given space and time basis vectors as arguments. Further discussion about this theoretically inconsequential, but practically necessary choice for purposes of internal consistency and convenience is deferred to the hide box below.In general, but with several exceptions, mathematicians and general relativists prefer spacelike vectors to yield a positive sign,, while particle physicists tend to prefer timelike vectors to yield a positive sign,. Authors covering several areas of physics, e.g. Steven Weinberg and Landau and Lifshitz stick to one choice regardless of topic. Arguments for the former convention include "continuity" from the Euclidean case corresponding to the non-relativistic limit. Arguments for the latter include that minus signs, otherwise ubiquitous in particle physics, go away. Yet other authors, especially of introductory texts, e.g., do not choose a signature at all, but instead opt to coordinatize spacetime such that the time coordinate is imaginary. This removes the need of the explicit introduction of a metric tensor, and one needs not be concerned with covariant vectors and contravariant vectors to be described below. The inner product is instead effected by a straightforward extension of the dot product in to. This works in the flat spacetime of special relativity, but not in the curved spacetime of general relativity, see . MTW also argues that it hides the true indefinite nature of the metric and the true nature of Lorentz boosts, which aren't rotations. It also needlessly complicates the use of tools of differential geometry that are otherwise immediately available and useful for geometrical description and calculation - even in the flat spacetime of special relativity, e.g. of the electromagnetic field.
Terminology
Mathematically associated to the bilinear form is a tensor of type at each point in spacetime, called the Minkowski metric. The Minkowski metric, the bilinear form, and the Minkowski inner product are all the same object; it is a bilinear function that accepts two vectors and returns a real number. In coordinates, this is the matrix representing the bilinear form.For comparison, in general relativity, a Lorentzian manifold is likewise equipped with a metric tensor, which is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space at each point of. In coordinates, it may be represented by a matrix depending on spacetime position. Minkowski space is thus a comparatively simple special case of a Lorentzian manifold. Its metric tensor is in coordinates the same symmetric matrix at every point of, and its arguments can, per above, be taken as vectors in spacetime itself.
Introducing more terminology, Minkowski space is thus a pseudo-Euclidean space with total dimension and signature or. Elements of Minkowski space are called events. Minkowski space is often denoted or to emphasize the chosen signature, or just. It is perhaps the simplest example of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold.
An interesting example of non-inertial coordinates for Minkowski spacetime are the Born coordinates. Another useful set of coordinates are the light-cone coordinates.
Pseudo-Euclidean metrics
Except for time-like vectors, the Minkowski inner product is not an inner product, since it is not positive-definite, i.e. the quadratic form need not be positive for nonzero. The positive-definite condition has been replaced by the weaker condition of non-degeneracy. The bilinear form is said to be indefinite.The Minkowski metric is the metric tensor of Minkowski space. It is a pseudo-Euclidean metric, or more generally a constant pseudo-Riemannian metric in Cartesian coordinates. As such it is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form, a type tensor. It accepts two arguments, vectors in, the tangent space at in. Due to the above-mentioned canonical identification of with itself, it accepts arguments with both and in.
As a notational convention, vectors in, called 4-vectors, are denoted in sans-serif italics, and not, as is common in the Euclidean setting, with boldface. The latter is generally reserved for the -vector part of a -vector.
The definition
yields an inner product-like structure on, previously and also henceforth, called the Minkowski inner product, similar to the Euclidean inner product, but it describes a different geometry. It is also called the relativistic dot product. If the two arguments are the same,
the resulting quantity will be called the Minkowski norm squared. The Minkowski inner product satisfies the following properties.
; Linearity in first argument:
; Symmetry:
; Non-degeneracy:
The first two conditions imply bilinearity. The defining difference between a pseudo-inner product and an inner product proper is that the former is not required to be positive definite, that is, is allowed.
The most important feature of the inner product and norm squared is that these are quantities unaffected by Lorentz transformations. In fact, it can be taken as the defining property of a Lorentz transformation that it preserves the inner product. This approach is taken more generally for all classical groups definable this way in classical group. There, the matrix is identical in the case to the matrix to be displayed below.
Two vectors and are said to be orthogonal if. For a geometric interpretation of orthogonality in the special case when and , see hyperbolic orthogonality.
A vector is called a unit vector if. A basis for consisting of mutually orthogonal unit vectors is called an orthonormal basis.
For a given inertial frame, an orthonormal basis in space, combined with the unit time vector, forms an orthonormal basis in Minkowski space. The number of positive and negative unit vectors in any such basis is a fixed pair of numbers, equal to the signature of the bilinear form associated with the inner product. This is Sylvester's law of inertia.
More terminology : The Minkowski metric is a pseudo-Riemannian metric, more specifically, a Lorentzian metric, even more specifically, the Lorentz metric, reserved for -dimensional flat spacetime with the remaining ambiguity only being the signature convention.
Minkowski metric
From the second postulate of special relativity, together with homogeneity of spacetime and isotropy of space, it follows that the spacetime interval between two arbitrary events called and is:This quantity is not consistently named in the literature. The interval is sometimes referred to as the square of the interval as defined here. It is not possible to give an exhaustive list of notational inconsistencies. One has to first check out the definitions when consulting the relativity literature.
The invariance of the interval under coordinate transformations between inertial frames follows from the invariance of
, provided the transformations are linear. This quadratic form can be used to define a bilinear form
via the polarization identity. This bilinear form can in turn be written as
where is a matrix associated with. Possibly confusingly, denote with just as is common practice. The matrix is read off from the explicit bilinear form as
and the bilinear form
with which this section started by assuming its existence, is now identified.
For definiteness and shorter presentation, the signature is adopted below. This choice has no physical implications. The symmetry group preserving the bilinear form with one choice of signature is isomorphic with the symmetry group preserving the other choice of signature. This means that both choices are in accord with the two postulates of relativity. Switching between the two conventions is straightforward. If the metric tensor has been used in a derivation, go back to the earliest point where it was used, substitute for, and retrace forward to the desired formula with the desired metric signature.
Standard basis
A standard basis for Minkowski space is a set of four mutually orthogonal vectors such thatThese conditions can be written compactly in the form
Relative to a standard basis, the components of a vector are written where the Einstein notation is used to write. The component is called the timelike component of while the other three components are called the spatial components. The spatial components of a -vector may be identified with a -vector.
In terms of components, the Minkowski inner product between two vectors and is given by
and
Here lowering of an index with the metric was used.
Raising and lowering of indices
Technically, a non-degenerate bilinear form provides a map between a vector space and its dual, in this context, the map is between the tangent spaces of and the cotangent spaces of. At a point in, the tangent and cotangent spaces are dual vector spaces. Just as an authentic inner product on a vector space with one argument fixed, by Riesz representation theorem, may be expressed as the action of a linear functional on the vector space, the same holds for the Minkowski inner product of Minkowski space.Thus if are the components of a vector in a tangent space, then are the components of a vector in the cotangent space. Due to the identification of vectors in tangent spaces with vectors in itself, this is mostly ignored, and vectors with lower indices are referred to as covariant vectors. In this latter interpretation, the covariant vectors are identified with vectors in the dual of Minkowski space. The ones with upper indices are contravariant vectors. In the same fashion, the inverse of the map from tangent to cotangent spaces, explicitly given by the inverse of in matrix representation, can be used to define raising of an index. The components of this inverse are denoted. It happens that. These maps between a vector space and its dual can be denoted and by the musical analogy.
Contravariant and covariant vectors are geometrically very different objects. The first can and should be thought of as arrows. A linear functional can be characterized by two objects: its kernel, which is a hyperplane passing through the origin, and its norm. Geometrically thus, covariant vectors should be viewed as a set of hyperplanes, with spacing depending on the norm, with one of them passing through the origin. The mathematical term for a covariant vector is 1-covector or 1-form.
uses a vivid analogy with wave fronts of a de Broglie wave quantum mechanically associated to a momentum four-vector to illustrate how one could imagine a covariant version of a contravariant vector. The inner product of two contravariant vectors could equally well be thought of as the action of the covariant version of one of them on the contravariant version of the other. The inner product is then how many time the arrow pierces the planes. The mathematical reference,, offers the same geometrical view of these objects.
The electromagnetic field tensor is a differential 2-form, which geometrical description can as well be found in MTW.
One may, of course, ignore geometrical views all together and proceed algebraically in a purely formal fashion. The time-proven robustness of the formalism itself, sometimes referred to as index gymnastics, ensures that moving vectors around and changing from contravariant to covariant vectors and vice versa is mathematically sound. Incorrect expressions tend to reveal themselves quickly.
The formalism of the Minkowski metric
The present purpose is to show semi-rigorously how formally one may apply the Minkowski metric to two vectors and obtain a real number, i.e. to display the role of the differentials, and how they disappear in a calculation. The setting is that of smooth manifold theory, and concepts such as convector fields and exterior derivatives are introduced.A full-blown version of the Minkowski metric in coordinates as a tensor field on spacetime has the appearance
Explanation: The coordinate differentials are 1-form fields. They are defined as the exterior derivative of the coordinate functions. These quantities evaluated at a point provide a basis for the cotangent space at. The tensor product yields a tensor field of type, i.e. the type that expects two contravariant vectors as arguments. On the right hand side, the symmetric product has been taken. The equality holds since, by definition, the Minkowski metric is symmetric. The notation on the far right is also sometimes used for the related, but different, line element. It is not a tensor. For elaboration on the differences and similarities, see
Tangent vectors are, in this formalism, given in terms of a basis of differential operators of the first order,
where is an event. This operator applied to a function gives the directional derivative of at in the direction of increasing with fixed. They provide a basis for the tangent space at.
The exterior derivative of a function is a covector field, i.e. an assignment of a cotangent vector to each point, by definition such that
for each vector field. A vector field is an assignment of a tangent vector to each point. In coordinates can be expanded at each point in the basis given by the. Applying this with, the coordinate function itself, and, called a coordinate vector field, one obtains
Since this relation holds at each point, the provide a basis for the cotangent space at each and the bases and are dual to each other,
at each. Furthermore, one has
for general one-forms on a tangent space and general tangent vectors.
Thus when the metric tensor is fed two vectors fields, both expanded in terms of the basis coordinate vector fields, the result is
where, are the component functions of the vector fields. The above equation holds at each point, and the relation may as well be interpreted as the Minkowski metric at applied to two tangent vectors at.
As mentioned, in a vector space, such as that modelling the spacetime of special relativity, tangent vectors can be canonically identified with vectors in the space itself, and vice versa. This means that the tangent spaces at each point are canonically identified with each other and with the vector space itself. This explains how the right hand side of the above equation can be employed directly, without regard to spacetime point the metric is to be evaluated and from where the vectors come from.
This situation changes in general relativity. There one has
where now, i.e. is still a metric tensor but now depending on spacetime and is a solution of Einstein's field equations. Moreover, must be tangent vectors at spacetime point and can no longer be moved around freely.
Chronological and causality relations
Let. We say that- chronologically precedes if is future-directed timelike. This relation has the transitive property and so can be written.
- causally precedes if is future-directed null or future-directed timelike. It gives a partial ordering of space-time and so can be written.
Generalizations
A Lorentzian manifold is a generalization of Minkowski space in two ways. The total number of spacetime dimensions is not restricted to be and a Lorentzian manifold need not be flat, i.e. it allows for curvature.Generalized Minkowski space
Minkowski space refers to a mathematical formulation in four dimensions. However, the mathematics can easily be extended or simplified to create an analogous generalized Minkowski space in any number of dimensions. If, -dimensional Minkowski space is a vector space of real dimension on which there is a constant Minkowski metric of signature or. These generalizations are used in theories where spacetime is assumed to have more or less than dimensions. String theory and M-theory are two examples where. In string theory, there appears conformal field theories with spacetime dimensions.de Sitter space can be formulated as a submanifold of generalized Minkowski space as can the model spaces of hyperbolic geometry.
Curvature
As a flat spacetime, the three spatial components of Minkowski spacetime always obey the Pythagorean Theorem. Minkowski space is a suitable basis for special relativity, a good description of physical systems over finite distances in systems without significant gravitation. However, in order to take gravity into account, physicists use the theory of general relativity, which is formulated in the mathematics of a non-Euclidean geometry. When this geometry is used as a model of physical space, it is known as curved space.Even in curved space, Minkowski space is still a good description in an infinitesimal region surrounding any point. More abstractly, we say that in the presence of gravity spacetime is described by a curved 4-dimensional manifold for which the tangent space to any point is a 4-dimensional Minkowski space. Thus, the structure of Minkowski space is still essential in the description of general relativity.
Geometry
The meaning of the term geometry for the Minkowski space depends heavily on the context. Minkowski space is not endowed with a Euclidean geometry, and not with any of the generalized Riemannian geometries with intrinsic curvature, those exposed by the model spaces in hyperbolic geometry and the geometry modeled by the sphere. The reason is the indefiniteness of the Minkowski metric. Minkowski space is, in particular, not a metric space and not a Riemannian manifold with a Riemannian metric. However, Minkowski space contains submanifolds endowed with a Riemannian metric yielding hyperbolic geometry.Model spaces of hyperbolic geometry of low dimension, say or, cannot be isometrically embedded in Euclidean space with one more dimension, i.e. or respectively, with the Euclidean metric, disallowing easy visualization. By comparison, model spaces with positive curvature are just spheres in Euclidean space of one higher dimension. It turns out however that these hyperbolic spaces can be isometrically embedded in spaces of one more dimension when the embedding space is endowed with the Minkowski metric.
Define to be the upper sheet of the hyperboloid
in generalized Minkowski space of spacetime dimension. This is one of the surfaces of transitivity of the generalized Lorentz group. The induced metric on this submanifold,
the pullback of the Minkowski metric under inclusion, is a Riemannian metric. With this metric is a Riemannian manifold. It is one of the model spaces of Riemannian geometry, the hyperboloid model of hyperbolic space. It is a space of constant negative curvature. The in the upper index refers to an enumeration of the different model spaces of hyperbolic geometry, and the for its dimension. A corresponds to the Poincaré disk model, while corresponds to the Poincaré half-space model of dimension.
Preliminaries
In the definition above is the inclusion map and the superscript star denotes the pullback. The present purpose is to describe this and similar operations as a preparation for the actual demonstration that actually is a hyperbolic space.| Behavior of tensors under inclusion, pullback of covariant tensors under general maps and pushforward of vectors under general maps | ||||||
Behavior of tensors under inclusion: For inclusion maps from a submanifold into and a covariant tensor of order on it holds that where are vector fields on. The subscript star denotes the pushforward, and it is in this special case simply the identity map. The latter equality holds because a tangent space to a submanifold at a point is in a canonical way a subspace of the tangent space of the manifold itself at the point in question. One may simply write meaning the restriction of to accept as input vectors tangent to some only. Pullback of tensors under general maps: The pullback of a covariant -tensor under a map is a linear map where for any vector space, It is defined by where the subscript star denotes the pushforward of the map, and are vectors in. The pushforward of vectors under general maps: Heuristically, pulling back a tensor to from feeding it vectors residing at is by definition the same as pushing forward the vectors from to feeding them to the tensor residing at. Further unwinding the definitions, the pushforward of a vector field under a map between manifolds is defined by where is a function on. When the pushforward of reduces to, the ordinary differential, which is given by the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives of the component functions. The differential is the best linear approximation of a function from to. The pushforward is the smooth manifold version of this. It acts between tangent spaces, and is in coordinates represented by the Jacobian matrix of the coordinate representation of the function. The corresponding pullback is the dual map from the dual of the range tangent space to the dual of the domain tangent space, i.e. it is a linear map, Hyperbolic stereographic projectionIn order to exhibit the metric it is necessary to pull it back via a suitable parametrization. A parametrization of a submanifold of is a map whose range is an open subset of. If has the same dimension as, a parametrization is just the inverse of a coordinate map. The parametrization to be used is the inverse of hyperbolic stereographic projection. This is illustrated in the figure to the left for. It is instructive to compare to stereographic projection for spheres.Stereographic projection and its inverse are given by where, for simplicity,. The are coordinates on and the are coordinates on.
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