List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources


These are biblical figures unambiguously identified in contemporary sources according to scholarly consensus. Biblical figures that are identified in artifacts of questionable authenticity, for example the Jehoash Inscription and the bullae of Baruch ben Neriah, or who are mentioned in ancient but non-contemporary documents, such as David and Balaam, are excluded from this list.

Hebrew Bible (Protocanonical Old Testament)

The Hebrew Bible, known in Judaism by the acronym Tanakh, is the collection of ancient writings that are considered sacred by both Jews and Christians. They tell the story of the Jewish people and their ancestors, starting from the creation narrative and concluding near the end of the 5th century BCE.
Although the first mention of the name 'Israel' in archaeology dates to the 13th century BCE, contemporary information on the Israelite nation prior to the 9th century BCE is extremely sparse. In the following centuries a small number of local Hebrew documents, mostly seals and bullae, mention biblical characters, but more extensive information is available in the royal inscriptions from neighbouring kingdoms, particularly Babylon, Assyria and Egypt.
NameTitleDate Attestation and NotesBiblical references
AdrammelechPrince of AssyriaIdentified as the murderer of his father Sennacherib in the Bible and in an Assyrian letter to Esarhaddon, where he is called "Arda-Mulissi"., †
AhabKing of IsraelIdentified in the contemporary Kurkh Monolith inscription of Shalmaneser III which describes the Battle of Qarqar and mentions "2,000 chariots, 10,000 soldiers of Ahab the Israelite" defeated by Shalmaneser.,
AhazKing of JudahMentioned in a contemporary Summary Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III which records that he received tribute from "Jehoahaz of Judah". Also identified in royal bullae belonging to Ahaz himself and his son Hezekiah.,,,
ApriesPharaoh of EgyptAlso known as Hophra; named in numerous contemporary inscriptions including those of the capitals of the columns of his palace. Herodotus speaks of him in Histories II, 161–171.†
Artaxerxes IKing of PersiaWidely identified with "Artaxerxes" in the book of Nehemiah. He is also found in the writings of contemporary historian Thucydides. Scholars are divided over whether the king in Ezra's time was the same, or Artaxerxes II.,
AshurbanipalKing of AssyriaGenerally identified with "the great and noble Osnappar", mentioned in the Book of Ezra. His name survives in his own writings, which describe his military campaigns against Elam, Susa and other nations.†
BelshazzarCoregent of BabylonMentioned by his father Nabonidus in the Nabonidus Cylinder. According to another Babylonian tablet, Nabonidus "entrusted the kingship to him" when he embarked on a lengthy military campaign.,,
Ben-hadadKing of Aram DamascusMentioned in the Zakkur Stele. A son of Hazael, he is variously called Ben-Hadad/Bar-Hadad II/III.,
Cyrus IIKing of PersiaAppears in many ancient inscriptions, most notably the Cyrus Cylinder. He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories.,
Darius IKing of PersiaMentioned in the books of Haggai, Zechariah and Ezra. He is the author of the Behistun Inscription. He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories.,
EsarhaddonKing of AssyriaHis name survives in his own writings, as well as in those of his son Ashurbanipal.,
Evil MerodachKing of BabylonHis name and title were found on a vase from his palace, and on several cuneiform tablets., †
HazaelKing of Aram DamascusShalmaneser III of Assyria records that he defeated Hazael in battle and captured many chariots and horses from him. Most scholars think that Hazael was the author of the Tel Dan Stele.,,
HezekiahKing of JudahAn account is preserved by Sennacherib of how he besieged "Hezekiah, the Jew", who "did not submit to my yoke", in his capital city of Jerusalem. A bulla was also found bearing Hezekia's name and title, reading "Belonging to Hezekiah Ahaz king of Judah".,,,,
HosheaKing of IsraelHe was put into power by Tilgath-Pileser III, king of Assyria, as recorded in his Annals, found in Calah.,
JehoashKing of IsraelMentioned in records of Adad-nirari III of Assyria as "Jehoash of Samaria".2 Kgs. 13:10,
JehoiachinKing of JudahHe was taken captive to Babylon after Nebuchadrezzar first captured Jerusalem. Texts from Nebuchadrezzar's Southern Palace record the rations given to "Jehoiachin king of the Judeans".,
JehuKing of IsraelMentioned on the Black Obelisk.,
JohananHigh Priest of IsraelMentioned in a letter from the Elephantine Papyri.
JothamKing of JudahIdentified as the father of King Ahaz on a contemporary clay bulla, reading "of Ahaz Jotham king of Judah".,,,
ManassehKing of JudahMentioned in the writings of Esarhaddon, who lists him as one of the kings who had brought him gifts and aided his conquest of Egypt.,
MenahemKing of IsraelThe annals of Tiglath-Pileser record that Menahem paid tribute him, as stated in the Books of Kings.
MeshaKing of MoabAuthor of the Mesha Stele.2 Kgs. 3:4†
Merodach-BaladanKing of BabylonNamed in the Great Inscription of Sargon II in his palace at Khorsabat. Also called "Berodach-Baladan"., †
Nebuchadnezzar IIKing of BabylonMentioned in numerous contemporary sources, including the inscription of the Ishtar Gate, which he built. Also called Nebuchadrezzar.,,
NebuzaradanBabylonian officialMentioned in a prism in Istanbul, found in Babylon where he is listed as the "chief cook".Jer. 52:12,
Nebo-SarsekimChief Eunuch of BabylonListed as Nabu-sharrussu-ukin in a Babylonian tablet.†
Necho IIPharaoh of EgyptMentioned in the writings of Ashurbanipal,
OmriKing of IsraelMentioned, together with his unnamed son or successor, on the Mesha Stele.,
PekahKing of IsraelMentioned in the annals of Tiglath-Pileser III.,
RezinKing of Aram DamascusA tributary of Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria and the last king of Aram Damascus. According to the Bible, he was eventually put to death by Tiglath-Pileser.,
SanballatGovernor of SamariaA leading figure of the opposition which Nehemiah encountered during the rebuilding of the walls around the temple in Jerusalem. Sanballat is mentioned in the Elephantine Papyri.,
Sargon IIKing of AssyriaHe besieged and conquered the city of Samaria and took many thousands captive, as recorded in the Bible and in an inscription in his royal palace. His name, however, does not appear in the biblical account of this siege, but only in reference to his siege of Ashdod.†
SennacheribKing of AssyriaThe author of a number of inscriptions discovered near Nineveh., Is. 36:1
Shalmaneser VKing of AssyriaMentioned on several royal palace weights found at Nimrud. Another inscription was found that is thought to be his, but the name of the author is only partly preserved., †
TaharqaPharaoh of Egypt, King of KushCalled "Tirhaka, the king of Kush" in the books of Kings and Isaiah. Several contemporary sources mention him and fragments of three statues bearing his name were excavated at Nineveh., †
TattenaiGovernor of Eber-NariKnown from contemporary Babylonian documents. He governed the Persian province west of the Euphrates river during the reign of Darius I.,
Tiglath-Pileser IIIKing of AssyriaNumerous writings are ascribed to him and he is mentioned, among others, in an inscription by Barrakab, king of Sam'al. He exiled inhabitants of the cities he captured in Israel.,
Xerxes IKing of PersiaCalled Ahasuerus in the books of Ezra and Esther. Xerxes is known in archaeology through a number of tablets and monuments, notably the "Gate of All Nations" in Persepolis. He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories.,,

Deuterocanonicals or biblical apocrypha

The deuterocanon consists of books and parts of books that are included in the Old Testament canon of the Eastern Orthodox and/or Roman Catholic churches, but are not part of the Jewish Tanakh, and are regarded as apocryphal by Protestants. In contrast to the Tanakh, which is preserved in Hebrew, the deuterocanonical books are preserved mainly in Koine Greek, though Hebrew and Aramaic fragments have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
While the deuterocanon describes events between the eighth and second centuries BCE, most historically identifiable people mentioned in the deuterocanon lived around the time of the Maccabean Revolt, by which time Judea had become part of the Seleucid Empire. Coins featuring the names of rulers had become widespread and many of them were inscribed with the year number in the Seleucid era, allowing them to be dated precisely. First-hand information comes also from the Greek historian Polybius, whose Histories covers much of the same period as the Books of Maccabees, and from Greek and Babylonian inscriptions.
NameTitleDate Attestation and NotesScriptural references
Alexander BalasKing of AsiaPretended to be a son of Antiochus Epiphanes, as he is also described in 1 Maccabees. Mentioned in Polybius' Histories.,
Alexander the GreatKing of MacedonReferred to by Athenian orator Aeschines, and identified on his coins., †
Antiochus III the GreatKing of AsiaMentioned by contemporary historian Polybius. and coins with his name have survived.,
Antiochus IV EpiphanesKing of AsiaKnown from Polybius' Histories and from contemporary coins.,
Antiochus V EupatorKing of AsiaExecuted by his half-brother Demetrius I when he was 11 years old. Identified in an inscription from Dymi, and on contemporary coins.,
Antiochus VI DionysusKing of AsiaReigned only nominally, as he was very young when his father died, but he is identified on contemporary coins.,
Antiochus VII SidetesKing of AsiaDethroned the usurper Tryphon. Coinage from the period bears his name.†
Ariarathes VKing of CappadociaMentioned by Polybius.†
Arsinoe IIIQueen of EgyptMarried to her brother, Ptolemy IV. Several contemporary inscriptions dedicated to them have been found., †
AstyagesKing of MedesThe contemporary Chronicle of Nabonidus refers to the mutiny on the battlefield as the cause for Astyages' overthrow †
Attalus II PhiladelphusKing of PergamonKnown from the writings of Polybius.†
Cleopatra TheaQueen of AsiaFirst married to Alexander Balas, later to Demetrius II and Antiochus VII, she became sole ruler after Demetrius' death. Her name and portrait appear on period coinage.†
Darius IIIKing of PersiaLast king of the Achaemenid Empire, defeated by Alexander the Great. Mentioned in the Samaria Papyri.†
Demetrius I SoterKing of AsiaA cuneiform tablet dated to 161 BCE refers to him, and Polybius, who personally interacted with Demetrius, mentions him in his Histories.,
Demetrius II NicatorKing of Asia, 129 – 126Ruled over part of the kingdom, simultaneously with Antiochus VI and Tryphon. He was defeated by Antiochus VII, but regained the throne in 129 BCE. Mentioned in the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries.,
Diodotus TryphonKing of AsiaUsurped the throne after the death of Antiochus VI. Although Antiochus VII melted down most of his coins, some have been found in Orthosias.,
Eumenes II SoterKing of PergamomSeveral of his letters have survived, and he is mentioned by Polybius.†
HeliodorusSeleucid legateIdentified in contemporary inscriptions.,
Mithridates IKing of ParthiaAlso called Arsaces. He captured Demetrius II as recorded in the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries., †
PerseusKing of MacedonSon of Philip V. Mentioned by Polybius. and identified on his coins.†
Philip IIKing of MacedonFather of Alexander the Great. Known from contemporary coins, and mentioned by Aeschines., †
Philip VKing of MacedonHis name appears on his coins, and in Polybius' Histories''.†
Ptolemy IV PhilopatorKing of EgyptMentioned together with his wife and sister Arsinoe III in contemporary inscriptions from Syria and Phoenicia.,
Ptolemy VI PhilometorKing of EgyptReferred to in ancient inscriptions, and mentioned by Polybius.,

New Testament

By far the most important and most detailed sources for first-century Jewish history are the works of Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. These books mention many of the same prominent political figures as the New Testament books and are crucial for understanding the historical background of the emergence of Christianity. Josephus also mentions Jesus and the execution of John the Baptist although he was not a contemporary of either. Apart from Josephus, information about some New Testament figures comes from Roman historians such as Tacitus and Suetonius and from ancient coins and inscriptions.
The central figure of the New Testament is Jesus of Nazareth. Despite ongoing debate concerning the authorship of many of its books, there is a consensus among modern scholars that at least some were written by a contemporary of Jesus, namely the epistles of Paul, parts of which are considered undisputed. However, outside the New Testament, no contemporary references to Jesus are known, unless a very early dating is assumed of some uncanonical gospel such as the Gospel of Thomas. Nevertheless, some authentic first century and many second century writings exist in which Jesus is mentioned, leading many scholars to conclude that the historicity of Jesus is well established by historical documents.

Gospels

NameTitleAttestation and NotesBiblical references
Augustus CaesarEmperor of RomeReigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE, during which time Jesus was born. He left behind a wealth of buildings, coins and monuments, including a funerary inscription in which he described his life and accomplishments.†
CaiaphasHigh Priest of IsraelIn 1990, workers found an ornate limestone ossuary while paving a road in the Peace Forest south of the Abu Tor neighborhood of Jerusalem. This ossuary appeared authentic and contained human remains. An Aramaic inscription on the side was thought to read "Joseph son of Caiaphas" and on the basis of this the bones of an elderly man were considered to belong to the High Priest Caiaphas. In 2011, archaeologists from Bar-Ilan University announced the recovery of a stolen ossuary, It is inscribed with the text: "Miriam, daughter of Yeshua, son of Caiaphas, Priest of Ma’aziah from Beth ‘Imri". Based on it, Caiaphas can be assigned to the priestly course of Ma’aziah, instituted by King David.
Herod AntipasTetrarch of Galilee and PereaA son of Herod the Great. Mentioned in Antiquities and Wars of the Jews. Both Matthew and Josephus record that he killed John the Baptist.,
Herod ArchelausEthnarch of Judea, Samaria and EdomA son of Herod the Great. He is known from the writings of Flavius Josephus and from contemporary coins.†
Herod the GreatKing of JudeaMentioned by his friend, the historian Nicolaus of Damascus. His name is also found on contemporary Jewish coins.,
HerodiasHerodian princessThe wife of Herod Antipas. According to the synoptic gospels, she was formerly married to Antipas's brother Philip, apparently Philip the Tetrarch. However, Josephus writes that her first husband was Herod II. Many scholars view this as a contradiction, but some have suggested that Herod II was also called Philip.,
James the brother of JesusBishop of JerusalemA leading figure of the early Christian community in Jerusalem and traditionally considered the author of the Epistle of James. Papias says that he was the Son of Cleopas/Alphaeus and Josephus records that he was condemned by the Sanhedrin led by the high priest Ananus ben Ananus and then stoned to death c. 62 CE.,
Matthew the ApostleTax collectorPapias of Hierapolis mentions that "Matthew put together the oracles of the Lord in the Hebrew language, and each one interpreted them as best he could.",
Philip the ApostleBishop of HierapolisOn Wednesday, 27 July 2011, the Turkish news agency Anadolu reported that archaeologists had unearthed a tomb that the project leader claims to be the tomb of Saint Philip during excavations in Hierapolis close to the Turkish city Denizli. The Italian archaeologist, Professor Francesco D'Andria stated that scientists had discovered the tomb within a newly revealed church. He stated that the design of the tomb, and writings on its walls, definitively prove it belonged to the martyred apostle of Jesus.
Philip the TetrarchTetrarch of Iturea and TrachonitisJosephus writes that he shared the kingdom of his father with his brothers Herod Antipas and Herod Archelaus. His name and title appear on coinage from the period.
Pontius PilatePrefect of JudeaHe ordered Jesus' execution. A stone inscription was found that mentions his name and title: "ntius Pilatus, ectus Iudae", see Pilate Stone. He is mentioned by his contemporary Philo of Alexandria in his Embassy to Gaius ,
QuiriniusGovernor of SyriaConducted a census while governing Syria as reported by Luke and Josephus, and confirmed by a tomb inscription of one Quintus Aemilius Secundus, who had served under him.†
Thomas the ApostlePapias of Hierapolis says that he was a disciple of Jesus,
Tiberius CaesarEmperor of RomeNamed in many inscriptions and on Roman coins. Among other accounts, some of his deeds are described by contemporary historian Velleius.†
SalomeHerodian princessA daughter of Herodias. Although she is not named in the Gospels, but referred to as 'the daughter of Herodias', she is commonly identified with Salome, Herodias' daughter, mentioned in Josephus' Antiquities., †
Simon PeterBishop of RomeMention by Ignatius of Antioch's Letter to the Romans and to the Smyrnaeans, Fragments from Papias's exposition of the oracles of the Lord, and the First Epistle to the Corinthians by Clement, who also says that Peter died as a martyr.-, Mt. 16

[Acts of the Apostles] and Epistles

NameTitleAttestation and NotesBiblical references
Ananias son of NedebaiosHigh Priest of IsraelHe held the office between c. 47 and 59 CE, as recorded by Josephus, and presided over the trial of Paul., †
Antonius FelixProcurator of JudeaMentioned by historians Josephus, Suetonius and Tacitus He imprisoned the apostle Paul around the year 58 CE, two years before Porcius Festus replaced him.,
ApollosBoth Paul and Clement affirmed that he was a Christian in Corinth.
Aretas IV PhilopatrisKing of the NabateansAccording to Paul, Aretas' governor in Damascus tried to arrest him. Besides being mentioned by Josephus, his name is found in several contemporary inscriptions and on numerous coins.†
BereniceHerodian princessA daughter of Herod Agrippa I. She appears to have had almost equal power to her brother Herod Agrippa II and is indeed called Queen Berenice in Tacitus' Histories.,
Claudius CaesarEmperor of RomeLike other Roman emperors, his name is found on numerous coins and monuments, such as the Porta Maggiore in Rome., †
DrusillaHerodian princessMarried to Antonius Felix, according to the Book of Acts and Josephus' Antiquities.†
GallioProconsul of AchaeaFull name Lucius Iunius Gallio Annaeanus. Seneca, his brother, mentions him in his epistles. In Delphi, an inscription, dated to 52 CE, was discovered that records a letter by emperor Claudius, in which Gallio is also named as proconsul†
Gamaliel the ElderRabbi of the SanhedrinHe is named as the father of Simon by Flavius Josephus in his autobiography. In the Talmud he is also described as a prominent member of the Sanhedrin., †
Herod Agrippa IKing of JudeaAlthough his name is given as Herod by Luke, and as Agrippa by Josephus, the accounts both writers give about his death are so similar that they are commonly accepted to refer to the same person. Hence many modern scholars call him Herod Agrippa .,
Herod Agrippa IIKing of JudeaHe ruled alongside his sister Berenice. Josephus writes about him in his Antiquities, and his name is found inscribed on contemporary Jewish coins.,
John of PatmosMentioned by the Fragments of Papias of Hierapolis and by his contemporary Ignatius of AntiochRev. 1
Judas of GalileeLeader of a Jewish revolt. Both the Book of Acts and Josephus tell of a rebellion he instigated in the time of the census of Quirinius.†
Jude, brother of JesusCatholicoi of all ArmeniansPapias Identifies him with Jude the Apostle, Saying that he was the Son of Mary of Cleophas and the brother of James
Nero CaesarEmperor of RomeMentioned in Contemporary Coins, Although he is not named in the Book of Revelation, the book mentions the number 666, theologians typically support the numerical interpretation that 666 is the equivalent of the name and title Nero using the Hebrew numerology of gematria, and was used to secretly speak against the emperor. Also "Nero Caesar" in the Hebrew alphabet is NRON QSR, which when used as numbers represent 50 200 6 50 100 60 200, which add to 666., †
Paul the ApostleMention by Ignatius of Antioch's Epistle to the Romans and Epistle to the Ephesians, Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians, and in Clement of Rome's Epistle to the Corinthians, who also says that Paul Suffered martyrdom and that he had preached in the East and in the Far WestGal. 1, 1 Cor. 1
Porcius FestusGovernor of JudeaSucceeded Antonius Felix, as recorded by Josephus and the Book of Acts.,

Tentatively identified

These are Biblical figures for which tentative but likely identifications have been found in contemporary sources based on matching names and credentials. The possibility of coincidental matching of names cannot be ruled out however.

Hebrew Bible (Protocanonical Old Testament)