Khalili Collection of Kimono
The Khalili Collection of Kimono is a private collection of Japanese kimono assembled by the British-Iranian scholar, collector and philanthropist Nasser D. Khalili, containing more than 450 items. It is one of eight collections assembled, published and exhibited by Khalili, each of which is considered to be among the most important collection within their respective fields.
The Khalili Collection of Kimono includes formal, semi-formal and informal kimono made for men, women and children, illustrating the evolution of the kimono through cut, construction, materials and decorative techniques from the 17th through to the 20th century, with kimono representing the Edo period, the Meiji era, the Taishō period and the Shōwa period. The kimono within the collection are not on permanent display, but are instead periodically lent or donated in part to cultural institutions; this has, amongst others, included the Kremlin Museums in Moscow and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Khalili describes kimono as "one of the wonders of the world", and originally started the collection with the aim of collecting and cataloguing cultural works that were not already actively being collected.
Kimono
"Kimono" literally means "thing to wear on the shoulders", originally meaning clothing in general rather than a specific garment. Clothing similar to the kimono was first introduced to Japan in the 7th century through frequent interaction between Japan and mainland China. The exchange of envoys between the two countries led to the Japanese Imperial Court adopting Chinese culture, including, among others, clothing, which consisted of wrapped-front garments with long sleeves of both a closed-neck and open-neck nature. The halting of envoy missions in the Heian period led to the stronger independent development of Japanese culture, including the further development of clothing into the kimono-like garment known as the kosode. Over time, the kosode became the predominant garment within Japan, developing from the Azuchi-Momoyama period onwards into the garment known as the kimono today.Kimono are made from long, thin bolts of cloth known as tanmono, stitched together with straight seams, held together by small ties known as koshihimo and always worn with an obi belt. While Western clothing styles emphasise the body of the wearer, kimono have a distinctive T-shape which conceals more of the wearer's body but provides, on the back and along the hem, a large area for decoration with patterns or motifs. Kimono are commonly decorated with motifs of either seasonal, cultural or religious significance, with some auspicious groupings of motifs — such as the Three Friends of Winter — being commonly seen on kimono worn to formal events such as weddings. Motifs may also refer to folklore, classical literature or popular culture, and sometimes include visual puns. Kimono differ slightly in construction for men, women and children, and the choice of fabric, colour and decorative techniques can signify the wearer's age, gender, formality of occasion and — less commonly — marital status. Variations of fabric type, weight and lining exist for different seasons, with unlined and sometimes sheer kimono being worn in the summer. Contrary to popular belief, the variation and experimentation visible in the history of kimono shows that kimono were - and remain to this day - a fashion system and industry, with its own rapidly-changing popular styles and trends, whereas this used to be thought of as a Western phenomenon.
The different forms of kimono represented in the Khalili Collection include the furisode, the kosode and the uchikake.
Edo period (1603–1868)
The Edo period saw the rise in a wide variety of designs and decorative techniques, particularly on kimono designed for women. Though the main consumers of kimono at the beginning of the Edo period were the military class, who used lavish clothing and other luxurious to signify their place in the social hierarchy, the rise of a wealthy merchant class fuelled demand for increasingly elaborate clothing. This included the development of sophisticated methods of weaving, dyeing, and embroidery, with women in particular adopting brighter and bolder designs in their clothing; in previous eras, both men's and women's kimono had been relatively similar in appearance. Though everyday kimono would have been woven and sewn by women at home, the most elaborate examples of kimono produced within this time period were designed and created by specialist craftsmen and artists who were typically men.The Khalili Collection includes examples of formal women's kimono worn as formal dress by samurai women; despite the militant connection, these are patterned with flowers, geometric patterns, or motifs such as clouds or waves. However, some examples within the collection do display the military status of the samurai, seen by way of example on a bright red kimono illustrated with gunbai war fans. Samurai men typically dressed with a more understated style, exemplified by items in the collection featuring geometric designs concentrated around the waist.
Another kind of kimono specific to the military elite is the goshodoki, or "palace court style", which would be worn in the residence of a military leader. These kimono - also featured through a number of pieces in the collection - featured landscape scenes, commonly accompanied by motifs referencing classical literature, and symbolism referencing stories made popular amongst the upper classes through Noh plays.
The collection also features some examples of yogi, or sleeping kimono, known to have been owned by samurai families; a type of thickly-wadded, wearable bedding, samurai yogi featured elaborate designs in garments made of silk in contrast to the typically simple and almost-entirely cotton examples used by the lower classes.
Garments outside of the samurai classes within the collection feature rich decoration from the waist-down only, with family crests on the neck and shoulders, a style known as tsuma moyō. These were worn by women of the merchant class, who dressed in kimono more subdued than those of the samurai, despite following the same colour trends and naturalistic designs; with the introduction of dress edicts designed to oppress the merchant and socially-lower classes throughout the Edo period, an aesthetic style known as iki developed, emphasising subdued displays of luxury and wealth over the obvious presentation of money shown through the clothing worn by the samurai classes. For those who could afford it, red was a popular colour, partly because of its cultural association with youth and passion, and partly for its expensive dye, derived from the safflower; a bright red garment would have been an ostentatious display of wealth, examples of which are found throughout the collection. Worn by less wealthy merchants, lower down the social scale, are kimono made of cotton or ramie and dyed with indigo dye, with less dense designs but still a variety of dyes, patterns and techniques.
Examples of Japanese garments created during this time period using imported Indian fabrics are also found in the collection. Indian fabrics, brought to Japan by Dutch importers, were received with enthusiasm and found many uses; the collection includes a flamboyant under-kimono for a man made by combining these finely-patterned fabrics with plain-weave silk and cotton. Other items show that Japanese designers started printing designs influenced by the Indian patterns independently, and that fabrics imported from France or Britain were also used to make kimono; ownership of these textiles would have signified both wealth and cultural taste, though the example found in the collection of a kimono using these fabrics is an undergarment, where the fabric would not have been seen once worn.
Meiji period (1868–1912)
The Meiji period was defined by its drive towards both Westernisation and industrialisation, kickstarted by Japan opening its borders to the world in the 1860s, which saw the rapid import of Western culture and technologies, including synthetic dyes, the first of which - mauveine - was invented in the previous decade. Japan's newly-opened border also saw the export of Japanese culture to the West, where the kimono became an object of fascination. In Japan, kimono began to be produced using synthetic dyes, and decoration expanded to include a number of Western motifs. The Japanese textile industry rapidly Westernised in the face of foreign weaving technologies, and silk from Tokyo's factories became the principle export of Japan. Cheaper synthetic dyes in the following decades meant that both purples and red - previously restricted to the wealthy elite - could now be owned by anyone, though they retained their symbolic importance of representing wealth and power.With the introduction of cheaper and faster manufacture, more people could now afford silk kimono, and designers were able to create new patterns using the new methods of production. Emperor Meiji issued a proclamation promoting Western dress over the allegedly effeminate Japanese dress, leading to the introduction of Western-style clothing within the public sphere, with some men typically adopting Western dress in the workplace and most women continuing to wear the kimono in everyday life. Despite the introduction of Western dress, the kimono did not quickly fossilise as an object of tradition worn out of obligation by women and those unable to afford Western clothing; advertisements within Japan up until the 1940s display both the kimono and Western dress as items of fashionable wear, suggesting a more parallel evolution of the two within the Japanese wardrobe as equal, if differing, items of clothing.
The collection features kimono illustrating the trends of the Meiji period, including the evolution from subtle, grey-toned colours to the shift towards brighter and more vibrant designs at the end of the period. A number have a plain, bold colour, and feature an elaborate design around the hem, a common feature on Meiji-period clothing; several have subtle colour gradients from the top to the bottom of the garment, a technique achieved through the dyeing technologies of the time. Another trend represented in the collection is both outer and inner garments of the same design, though this technique was usually reserved for those who could afford both brand-new kimono and undergarments of the same design to be commissioned at once.
A more typical representation of Meiji-period underclothes found in the collection is women's under-kimono made of different pieces of fabric, often with radically different colours and designs; these under-kimono, known as dōnuki, were often made from old kimono that had become unwearable, resulting in a sometimes complex, often symmetrical patchwork of motifs and fabrics. For men, under-kimono often featured highly-decorative and often heavily pictorial scenes that would then be covered entirely by the outer kimono, which was typically very plain or designed with a simple and subtle pattern. Example of men's under-kimono within the collection display depictions of performers, dancers and haiku poems; one piece combines postcard-like scenes of Japan's progress with a textual diary of the Meiji era.
Even the clothing of infants and young children used bold colours, intricate designs, and materials common to adult fashions. The collection has many examples, including a boy's kimono and under-kimono set, decorated with cranes and pine trees, and a girl's set that combines a deep blue outer garment with a bright red undergarment.
Taishō and early Shōwa periods (1912–1950)
The early twentieth century brought a new mix on cultural influences, including the increase in both Japanese nationalism and Western influence, including Art Nouveau and Art Deco. The imagery on young boy's kimono typically reflected this heavily, with designs of skyscrapers, cars and planes common depictions of the modern world. Kimono of these periods are identifiable by their vibrant colours and highly-varied, often incredibly modern designs. Mass-produced garments in new, cheap fibres such as rayon used printing to cheaply imitate traditional dyeing processes; elsewhere, a style of inexpensive and durable silk kimono known as meisen became immensely popular, particularly following the devastating 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, after which ready-to-wear meisen kimono became widely sold following the loss of many people's possessions.The urban culture of the Taishō period was marked by "modanizumu", which utilised imported Western art movements and fashion as a way to experiment within Japanese culture. In many aspects of Japanese culture, debate raged over traditional aspects of Japanese culture in the face of new Western styles. For many, the new, bold designs on kimono were a comfortable middle ground combining aspects of both.
With the rise of Japanese militarism in the 1930s, many previously-adopted aspects of Western culture were abandoned in the face of a new wave of nationalism. Male kimono designs adopted explicitly militaristic imagery, including soldiers, bombers and tanks. Though these designs were featured only on linings and undergarments, the kimono worn by young boys were more likely to be openly militaristic in style, symbolising a desire to align personal goals with those of Japan as a nation.
The collection features items illustrating the overlap between the traditions of previous eras and the introduction of new ideas to contemporary kimono designs, with many featuring traditional motifs depicted in bold, bright colours. The designs of these kimono range from geometric block patterns to floral motifs repeating within stripes or other designs, achieved through stenciled designs or selective dyework. As well as stripes and checks, the geometric patterns also include the use of arabesques and swastikas - in some cases the traditional interlocking swastika motif known as sayagata, but in other cases the explicitly-Third Reich swastika flag. One fashion trend of the 1930s, represented in the collection, is black kimono with abstract patterns in red, yellow, cream and white.
The semi-formal, colourfully-decorated hōmongi style is also represented in the collection in examples from this time period, as is a formal, black style with decoration limited to below the waist, known as kimono#kurotomesode. The collection also has examples of highly-pictographic contemporary kimono whose decoration celebrates modern forms of transport including ocean liners. These examples also include military-themed kimono from World War II, depicting tanks, warships and aircraft.