Jewish mysticism
Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially since Gershom Scholem's Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, distinguishes between different forms of mysticism across different eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbalah, which emerged in 12th-century Europe, is the most well known, but not the only typologic form, or the earliest to emerge. Among previous forms were Merkabah mysticism, and Ashkenazi Hasidim around the time of Kabbalistic emergence.
Kabbalah means "received tradition", a term previously used in other Judaic contexts, but which the Medieval Kabbalists adopted for their own doctrine to express the belief that they were not innovating, but merely revealing the ancient hidden esoteric tradition of the Torah. This issue is crystallised until today by alternative views on the origin of the Zohar, the main text of Kabbalah. Traditional Kabbalists regard it as originating in Tannaic times, redacting the Oral Torah, so do not make a sharp distinction between Kabbalah and early Rabbinic Jewish mysticism. Academic scholars regard it as a synthesis from Medieval times, but assimilating and incorporating into itself earlier forms of Jewish mystical tradition, as well as other philosophical elements.
The theosophical aspect of Kabbalah itself developed through two historical forms: "Medieval/Classic/Zoharic Kabbalah", and Lurianic Kabbalah which assimilated Medieval Kabbalah into its wider system and became the basis for modern Jewish Kabbalah. After Luria, two new mystical forms popularised Kabbalah in Judaism: antinomian-heretical Sabbatean movements, and Hasidic Judaism. In contemporary Judaism, the only main forms of Jewish mysticism followed are esoteric Lurianic Kabbalah and its later commentaries, the variety of schools in Hasidic Judaism, and Neo-Hasidism in non-Orthodox Jewish denominations.
Two non-Jewish syncretic traditions also popularised Judaic Kabbalah through its incorporation as part of general Western esoteric culture from the Renaissance onwards: theological Christian Cabala which adapted Judaic Kabbalistic doctrine to Christian belief, and its diverging occultist offshoot Hermetic Qabalah which became a main element in esoteric and magical societies and teachings. As separate traditions of development outside Judaism, drawing from, syncretically adapting, and different in nature and aims from Judaic mysticism, they are not listed on this page.
Three aims
The Kabbalistic form of Jewish mysticism itself divides into three general streams: the Theosophical/Speculative Kabbalah, the Meditative/Ecstatic Kabbalah, and the Practical/Magical Kabbalah. These three different, but inter-relating, methods or aims of mystical involvement are also found throughout the other pre-Kabbalistic and post-Kabbalistic stages in Jewish mystical development, as three general typologies. As in Kabbalah, the same text can contain aspects of all three approaches, though the three streams often distill into three separate literatures under the influence of particular exponents or eras.Within Kabbalah, the theosophical tradition is distinguished from many forms of mysticism in other religions by its doctrinal form as a mystical "philosophy" of Gnosis esoteric knowledge. Instead, the tradition of Meditative Kabbalah has similarity of aim, if not form, with usual traditions of general mysticism; to unite the individual intuitively with God. The tradition of theurgic Practical Kabbalah in Judaism, censored and restricted by mainstream Jewish Kabbalists, has similarities with non-Jewish Hermetic Qabalah magical Western Esotericism. However, as understood by Jewish Kabbalists, it is censored and forgotten in contemporary times because without the requisite purity and holy motive, it would degenerate into impure and forbidden magic. Consequently, it has formed a minor tradition in Jewish mystical history.
Historical forms
| Historical phase | Dates | Influential developments and texts |
| Early Israelite traditional origins | 2nd millennium - 800 BCE | Prophetic meditation mystical elements in traditional prehistory and early Bible depiction encounters with the divine: Hebrew Patriarchs and Matriarchs Covenant of the pieces Jacob's Ladder Jacob wrestling with the angel Moses Burning bush Theophany at Sinai Yahwism Early Israelite monarchic and cult prophets: Elijah's ascension |
| Prophetic Judaism | 800–5th century BCE | Prophetic meditation, divine encounter, heavenly host throne of God visions, mystical elements, in the literary Prophetic books of the Bible, from the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the Babylonian captivity and Return to Zion: Isaiah Ezekiel Zechariah |
| Apocalyptic Judaism | Beginning 5th century BCE 300–100 BCE Continuing to 1st century CE | Mystical and apocalyptic speculation, heavenly angelology and eschatology, in Second Temple Judaism under foreign rule and oppression, after the social institution era of prophecy closed: Daniel 1 Enoch Biblical apocrypha-pseudepigrapha |
| Mystical elements in Second Temple period sects | c. 200 BCE-c. 100 CE | Mystical and pious elements among sects in the late Second Temple period in Judea and the Diaspora: Hasideans Essenes Philo's Platonic philosophy influence on early Christianity Christian Jewish early Christian mysticism |
| Early Rabbinic mysticism and mystical elements in classic Rabbinic literature | c. 1–200 CE influence to 5th century CE | References in exoteric Talmud and Midrash to Tannaic early Rabbinic mystical circles, Maaseh Merkabah – Work of the Chariot exegesis and ascent, Maaseh Bereshit – Work of Creation exegesis. Wider continuing mystical elements in aggadah Rabbinic theology and narratives: Johanan ben Zakai and his disciples Rabbi Akiva Mystical aggadot examples: Four who entered the Pardes Oven of Akhnai Bath ḳōl Torah: black fire on white fire, God looked in Torah to create World Shekhinah accompanies Israel in exile The Messiah at the Gates of Rome |
| Merkabah-Hekhalot esoteric texts and methods | c. 2nd century-1000 | Traditional/pseudepigraphical/anonymous esoteric Merkabah mysticism Throne and Hekhalot Palaces ascent literature and methods. Text protagonists are early Tannaic Rabbis, though texts academically dated variously from Talmudic 100–500 to Gaonic 400–800 periods, and sectarian/rabbinic origins debated: Earlier texts: 3 Enoch Hekhalot Rabbati Hekhalot Zutari Merkavah Rabbah Later texts: Shi'ur Qomah Mystical speculations of the Geonim |
| Practical Kabbalah white magic | c. early CE-early modernity | Jewish use of white magic for theurgy by elite mystics, drawing from practices that developed from Talmudic period to early modernity: Magical elements in Merkabah mysticism ascents Use of Sefer Yetzirah for magic Sefer Raziel HaMalakh Golem Amulets Joseph della Reina 1400s attempt to hasten the messiah 16th-19th century European Baal Shem |
| Proto-Kabbalistic | 200–600 | Maaseh Bereshit – Creation speculation text. Describes 10 sephirot, though without their significance to later Kabbalah. Received rationalist interpretations before becoming a for Kabbalah: Sefer Yetzirah |
| Mystical elements in Medieval Jewish philosophy | 11th–13th centuries | Mystical elements in the thought of Medieval rationalist and anti-rationalist Jewish philosophical theologians: Solomon ibn Gabirol Jewish Neoplatonism Judah Halevi anti-rationalism Moses Maimonides Neoplatonised Aristotelianism |
| Jewish Sufi piety | 11th to 15th centuries | Jewish piety, including meditative experiential elements: Bahya ibn Paquda 11th century – Chovot HaLevavot Abraham Maimonides and the "Jewish Sufis" of Cairo 13th–15th century |
| Early Kabbalah | c. 1174–1200 | Emergence of Kabbalistic mystical theosophy among Hachmei Provence in Southern France. The Bahir, regarded in academia as the first Kabbalistic work, incorporates an earlier source text: Sefer HaBahir Abraham ben David of Posquières critic of Maimonides Isaac the Blind "Iyyun" and "Unique Cherub" mystical circles of unknown provenance |
| Chassidei Ashkenaz | c. 1150–1250 | Mystical-ethical piety and speculative theory in Ashkenaz-Germany. Shaped by Merkabah-Hekhalot texts, Practical Kabbalah magical elements, Rhineland Crusader persecutions and German monastic values: Samuel of Speyer Judah of Regensburg – Sefer Hasidim Eleazar of Worms |
| Medieval Kabbalah development | c. 1200–1492 | Alternative philosophical vs. mythological interpretations of Theosophical Kabbalah: "Neoplatonic" quasi-philosophical hierarchy, and Jewish-"Gnostic" mythological interest in the demonic motifs. Centred in Spain's Kabbalistic golden age: Early 13th century Girona neoplatonic school: Azriel of Gerona Nahmanides – Torah commentary 13th century Castile gnostic school: Treatise on the Left Emanation The Zohar in Spain from c.1286: Zohar literature late 1200s-1400s. Castile's gnostic culmination. Subsequent Zohar exegesis dominated other Medieval Kabbalah traditions. Possible Kabbalists in the Zohar circle: Moses de León Todros ben Joseph Abulafia and others Kabbalistic scholarship: Joseph Gikatilla – Shaarei Orah c.1290 Spain Sefer HaTemunah 13th–14th century influential doctrine in Kabbalah of Cosmic Cycles, later rejected by Cordovero and Luria Bahya ben Asher Torah commentary |
| Medieval Ecstatic Kabbalah | 13th – 16th centuries | Medieval Meditative Kabbalah developed its own traditions. Abraham Abulafia's meditative system of Ecstatic-Prophetic Kabbalah, his Maimonidean alternative competitor to Theosophical Kabbalah, embodies the non-Zoharic ecstatic stream in Spanish Kabbalism: Abulafian Prophetic Kabbalah school: Abraham Abulafia Mediterranean area late 13th century Judah Albotini Jerusalem 15th–16th century Other meditative methods: Isaac of Acco 14th century Joseph Tzayach Damascus and Jerusalem 16th century |
| Post-1492 and Safed Kabbalah | 16th century | Transition from esoteric Medieval Kabbalism to Kabbalah as a national messianic doctrine, after 1492 Expulsion from Spain exile. Jewish renaissance of Palestine: Joseph Taitazak Salonica Solomon Molcho Jewish Messiah claimant Meir ibn Gabbai 16th century early systemiser Safed-Galilee Kabbalists: Joseph Karo legalist and mystic Shlomo Alkabetz Moses Cordovero – Pardes Rimonim. Cordoverian systemisation of Medieval Kabbalah until 1570 Isaac Luria – new post-Medieval Lurianic systemisation taught 1570–1572 Hayim Vital main Lurianic compiler and other writings Safed Meditative Kabbalah: Vital – Shaarei Kedusha, Luria – Yichudim method |
| Maharal's mystical theology | 16th century | Medieval Kabbalah expressed in non-Kabbalistic philosophical theology: Judah Loew Prague |
| Early Lurianic and post-medieval Kabbalism | 16th-mid-18th centuries | Esoteric Lurianism, the second of Kabbalah's two systems of theosophy after Medieval-Cordoverian, incorporating dynamic myth of exile and redemption in divinity taught by Isaac Luria 1570–72. Other post-medieval popularising/ethical Kabbalah based itself on the more exoteric system of Moses Cordovero: Disciples compile Kitvei Ari Lurianic thought: Hayim Vital – Israel Sarug spread Lurianism in Europe Lurianic exegesis and meditative methods dominated other post-medieval Kabbalah trends Popularising Kabbalistic Musar and homiletic literature 1550s–1750s: Moses Cordovero – Tomer Devorah Eliyahu de Vidas – Reshit Chochmah Kav ha-Yashar Isaiah Horowitz – Shnei Luchot HaBrit Central Europe Kabbalistic renewal and scholarship: Abraham Azulai Chaim ibn Attar Torah commentary Moshe Chaim Luzzatto Italian early 18th century mystical-messianic circle, new public dissemination and revelation of Kabbalah Joseph Ergas |
| Sabbatean movements | 1665 – c. 19th century | Kabbalistic messianic-mystical heresies developing antinomian new theologies from Zoharic and Lurianic Kabbalah. Theological spectrum from mild to strong: Sabbateans: Sabbatai Zevi messianic claimant Islamic convert Nathan of Gaza Sabbatean prophet Moderate-crypto and radical-antinomian factions Emden-Eybeschutz controversy and Rabbinic excommunication of Sabbateans Frankism: Jacob Frank messianic claimant pseudo-Christian convert, late 18th century nihilism |
| Early and formative Hasidic Judaism | 1730s–1850s | Eastern European mystical revival movement, popularising and psychologising Kabbalah through Panentheism and the Tzadik mystical leader. Neutralised messianic danger expressed in Sabbateanism: Pre-Hasidic origins: Baal Shem Eastern Europe Practical Kabbalists Tzadikim Nistarim mythology Early Hasidism: Israel ben Eliezer founder of Hasidism Dov Ber of Mezeritch systemiser and architect of Hasidism Jacob Joseph of Polonne Levi Yitzhak of Berditchev Main Hasidic schools of thought : Mainstream Hasidic Tzadikism: Elimelech of Lizhensk – Noam Elimelech Yaakov Yitzchak of Lublin Chabad intellectual Hasidism – Russia: Shneur Zalman of Liadi – Tanya theorist of Hasidism Aaron of Staroselye Breslav imaginative Hasidism – Ukraine: Nachman of Breslav – Likutei Moharan Nathan of Breslav Peshischa-Kotzk introspective Hasidism – Poland, mystical offshoot from: Mordechai Yosef Leiner of Izbica – Mei Hashiloach, personal illumination Hasidic storytelling: Shivchei HaBesht published 1814 Sippurei Ma'asiyot Nachman of Breslav's 13 mystical tales 1816 |
| Later traditional Lurianic Kabbalah | 18th century-today | Traditionalist esoteric interpretations and practice of Lurianic Kabbalah from 18th century until today, apart from Hasidic adaptions: Brody Kloiz and pre-Hasidic introverted Hasidim kabbalistic circles in Eastern Europe. Renewed esotericism in response to Sabbatean heresy Mitnagdic-Lithuanian non-Hasidic Kabbalah: Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman figurehead of Mitnagdim 18th century Chaim of Volozhin – Nefesh HaChaim theorist of Mitnagdism, founder of Yeshiva movement Shlomo Elyashiv Influence of Hasidism on later Lithuanian Musar-ethics of Eliyahu Dessler Mizrahi-Sephardi Oriental Kabbalah: Shalom Sharabi 18th century and Beit El Synagogue introverted esotericism response to Sabbateanism. Lurianic exposition and elite meditation circle Chaim Yosef David Azulai 18th century Yosef Hayyim 19th century Hakham Baghdad Abuhatzeira Moroccan Kabbalist dynasty Mordechai Sharabi Yitzhak Kaduri 20th century Ashkenazi European Kabbalah : Shaar Hashamayim Yeshiva Yehuda Ashlag 20th century Israel – HaSulam Lurianic Zohar |
| Later Hasidic Judaism | 1850s-today | Dynastic succession and modernising society turned Hasidism away from pre-1810s mystical revivalism, to post-1850s consolidation and rabbinic conservatism. Mystical focus continued in some schools: Yitzchak Eisik Safrin of Komarno visionary mystic Chabad-Lubavitch – intellectual Hasidism communication Zadok HaKohen late 19th century Izbica school Aharon Roth early 20th century Jerusalem piety Kalonymus Kalman Shapira response to Holocaust Menachem Mendel Schneerson Hasidic outreach and 1990s messianism Breslav contemporary mystical revivalism |
| Neo-Hasidism and Neo-Kabbalah | c. 20th century-today | Non-Orthodox Jewish denominations' adapted spiritual teaching of Kabbalistic and Hasidic theology to modernist thought and interpretations: Early 20th century: Martin Buber existential Neo-Hasidism Post War and contemporary: Abraham Joshua Heschel Neo-traditional aggadic Judaism Zalman Schachter-Shalomi Jewish Renewal Arthur Green academic and theologian Lawrence Kushner Reform Neo-Kabbalah Influence on modern and postmodern Jewish philosophy: Jewish existentialism Postmodern Jewish philosophy Independent scholarship: Sanford Drob – The New Kabbalah Zevi Slavin – Seekers of Unity |
| Zionist mysticism | c. 1910s-today | Teachings and influence of Rav Kook poetic mystic. Unity of religion and secularism, halakha and aggadah, activism and quietism: Abraham Isaac Kook Chief Rabbi Mandate Palestine Atchalta De'Geulah religious Zionism |
| Academic study of Jewish mysticism | c. 1920s-today | Critical-historical study of Jewish mystical texts began in 19th century, but Gershom Scholem's school in the mid-20th century founded the methodological disciple in academia, returning mysticism to a central position in Jewish historiography and Jewish studies departments. Select historian examples: First generation: Gershom Scholem discipline founder Hebrew University Alexander Altmann American initiator Present generation, multi-disciplinary approaches: Moshe Idel Hebrew University revisionism Elliot R. Wolfson feminist contributions |