Iodinated contrast
Iodinated contrast is a form of intravenous radiocontrast agent containing iodine, which enhances the visibility of vascular structures and organs during radiographic procedures. Some pathologies, such as cancer, have particularly improved visibility with iodinated contrast.
The radiodensity of iodinated contrast is 25–30 Hounsfield units per milligram of iodine per milliliter at a tube voltage of 100–120 kVp.
Types
Iodine-based contrast media are usually classified as ionic or non-ionic. Both types are used most commonly in radiology due to their relatively harmless interaction with the body and its solubility. Contrast media are primarily used to visualize vessels and changes in tissues on radiography and CT. Contrast media can also be used for tests of the urinary tract, uterus and fallopian tubes. It may cause the patient to feel as if they have had urinary incontinence. It also puts a metallic taste in the mouth of the patient.The iodine may be bound either in an organic compound or an ionic compound. Ionic agents were developed first and are still in widespread use depending on the requirements, but may result in additional complications. Organic agents which covalently bind the iodine have fewer side effects as they do not dissociate into component molecules. Many of the side effects are due to the hyperosmolar solution being injected. i.e. they deliver more iodine atoms per molecule. The more iodine, the more "dense" the X-ray effect.
Organic iodine molecules used for contrast include iohexol, iodixanol, and ioversol.
Iodine-based contrast media used nowadays are water-soluble. These contrast agents are sold as clear, colorless water solutions, with the concentration usually expressed as mg I/ml. Modern iodinated contrast agents can be used almost anywhere in the body. Most often they are used intravenously, but for various purposes they can also be used intra-arterially, intrathecally and intra-abdominally – just about any body cavity or potential space.
Iodine contrast agents are used for the following:
- Contrast CTs
- Angiography
- Venography
- VCUG
- HSG
- IVU
Ionic
Non-ionic
Non-ionic contrast media have lower osmolality and tend to have fewer side-effects.Adverse effects
Iodinated contrast agents may cause allergic reactions, contrast-induced nephropathy, hyperthyroidism and possibly metformin accumulation. However, there are no absolute contraindications to iodinated contrast, so the benefits needs to be weighted against the risks.In people with myasthenia gravis, older forms of iodinated contrast have caused an increased risk of exacerbation of the disease, but modern forms have no immediate increased risk.
Hypersensitivity reactions
occur rarely, but can occur in response to injected as well as oral and rectal contrast and even retrograde pyelography.They are similar in presentation to anaphylactic reactions, but are not caused by an IgE-mediated immune response. Patients with a history of contrast reactions, however, are at increased risk of anaphylactoid reactions.
Pretreatment with corticosteroids has been shown to decrease the incidence of adverse reactions.
Anaphylactoid reactions range from urticaria and itching, to bronchospasm and facial and laryngeal edema. For simple cases of urticaria and itching, an oral or intravenous antihistamine such as diphenhydramine is appropriate. For more severe reactions, including bronchospasm and facial or neck edema, albuterol inhaler, or subcutaneous or IV epinephrine, plus diphenhydramine may be needed. If respiration is compromised, an airway must be established prior to medical management.
Anaphylaxis to ionic contrast agent injections occurred in two clusters of reactions on two occasions in a single radiology clinic in London, Ontario. On each occasion, these anaphylactic reactions were associated with contamination of the injection by natural rubber components. The allergenic-toxic rubber leachate was MBT. This is a known allergen that becomes bound to plasma proteins, creating a hapten-protein complex – a signature mechanism in true IgE drug allergy and true anaphylactic reactions.
A Japanese syringe manufacturer, Terumo, implicated in syringe-related toxic laboratory cell culture effects in Australia in 1981, was instrumental in pro-actively making Japanese disposable syringes and ampoule seals free of natural rubber. Katayama's 1990 article in Radiology showed that a new type of nonionic contrast agent was associated with significantly fewer severe life-threatening reactions than the older ionic contrast agents. By merchandizing the Katayama series reprints, manufacturers persuaded users worldwide to switch to the almost exclusive use of the expensive nonionic agents.
What was unknown to the Katayama researchers was that the ampoule seals of the "safer" nonionic contrast agents were made from artificial rubber, whereas the ionic agents were sealed with natural rubber. In 1987, it was the leaching of allergenic MBT from the rubber seals of ionic ampoules that caused a series of allergic reactions in a radiology office in Canada. The worldwide hazard of MBT contamination of injections was unknown then and, as the World Health Organization reported it remains as an unknown hazard still – after three decades.
The most significant study, proving that injections of ionic agents are at least as safe as the newer, very expensive nonionics was published in Radiology in 1997. Lasser did not comment that the marked drop in the incidence of severe reactions with ionic agents was related to the removal of natural rubber contamination from ionic ampoule seals.
Contribution of seafood and other allergies
The term "iodine allergy" should be omitted because this kind of allergy does not exist. Seafood "allergy" is not a contraindication for the use of iodinated contrast materials, because in seafood allergy the immune system is directed against the muscle protein tropomyosin. While iodine levels in seafood are higher than in non-seafood items, the consumption of the latter exceeds that of the former by far and there is no evidence that the iodine content of seafood is related to reactions to seafood. Available data suggest that seafood allergy increases the risk of a contrast-mediated reaction by approximately the same amount as allergies to fruits or those with asthma. In addition, those with an intolerance to alcohol should avoid use of this product due to chemical breakdown similar to ethyl alcohol. Studies show that B.A.C. has been shown to increase exponentially for up to 72 hours after contrast is administered, resulting in altered results of urine, blood, and breath alcohol screens. Over 85% of patients with seafood allergies will not have an adverse reaction to iodinated contrast. Finally, there is no evidence that adverse skin reactions to iodine-containing topical antiseptics are of any specific relevance to administration of I.V. contrast material.IL-2 medication poses no risk for the acquisition of adverse events by radiocontrast agents.
Contrast-induced nephropathy
Contrast-induced nephropathy is defined as either a greater than 25% increase of serum creatinine or an absolute increase in serum creatinine of 0.5 mg/dL. Iodinated contrast may be toxic to the kidneys, especially when given via the arteries prior to studies such as catheter coronary angiography. Non-ionic contrast agents, which are almost exclusively used in CT scans, have not been shown to cause CIN when given intravenously at doses needed for CT studies.Effects on thyroid function
Iodinated contrast media exposure can potentially cause incident hyperthyroidism and incident overt hypothyroidism." Hyperthyroidism is the effect of iodine being a substrate of thyroid hormones, and is then called the Jod-Basedow phenomenon. The risk is higher in those with an underlying thyroid disease, such as toxic multinodular goiter, Graves’ disease, or Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, where thyroid monitoring is indicated. Otherwise, for the general population, routine screening with thyroid function tests is generally not feasible.Drug interactions
It has been recommended that metformin, an oral antidiabetic agent, be stopped for 48 hours following the intravascular administration of contrast media and that the use of metformin not be resumed until kidney function has been shown to be normal. The reasoning is that if the contrast medium causes kidney failure and the person continues to take metformin, there may be a toxic accumulation of metformin, increasing the risk of lactic acidosis, a dangerous complication.However, guidelines published by the American College of Radiologists suggest this is not as important for patients who have normal kidney function and no evidence of acute kidney injury. If kidney impairment is found before administration of the contrast, metformin should be withheld for 48 hours following the procedure and until kidney function has returned to normal.
Contrast exposure may interfere with subsequent radioiodine treatment, causing unwanted delays in the management of thyroid cancer.
Previously, beta blockers have been assumed as risk factor for the acquisition of contrast medium-induced adverse reactions/hypersensitivity reactions. Due to recent investigations it became clear that beta blockers do not increase the frequency of adverse reactions in concert with radiocontrast agents.