Hurricane Luis
Hurricane Luis was a very large, long-lived, powerful and a very destructive Category 4 Cape Verde hurricane, as well as one of the strongest and most notable hurricanes of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season. Luis was also the strongest hurricane to make landfall, and the third-most intense hurricane recorded during the extremely active season. It was the twelfth tropical storm, sixth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the season. At one point, the storm was one of four simultaneous tropical systems in the Atlantic basin, along with Humberto, Iris, and Karen. The storm lasted for 14 days as a tropical storm between late August and mid-September.
Luis caused extensive damage in Antigua and St. Barthelemy and catastrophic damage in Barbuda, most area on St Martin and Anguilla as a Category 4 with winds between 130 mph and 135 mph. The storm accounted for 19 deaths, left over 70,000 disaster victims and near 20,000 homeless and caused roughly $3.3 billion in damage across the affected areas.
At this time, Luis was the costliest and most devastating hurricane to strike the Leeward Islands and since the 1950, it was the last Category 4 storms to hit the Leeward Islands in the 20th century after Hurricane Dog in 1950, Hurricane Donna in 1960, Hurricane David in 1979 and Hurricane Hugo in 1989.
Additionally, Luis was the second of three tropical cyclones to affect Guadeloupe in a short period of time, the first being Hurricane Iris a week before, and the last being Hurricane Marilyn only ten days afterward. During the next year, the Leeward Islands would be struck by Hurricane Bertha, while still repairing from Luis and Marilyn, then successively hit by Hortense, Erika, Georges, Jose, Lenny and Debby.
The system formed from a tropical wave south of Cape Verde islands, west of Africa on August 27, then subsequently attained tropical storm status on August 29. Two days later, the storm reached hurricane status; shortly thereafter, it rapidly strengthened into a 140 mph Category 4 hurricane. At this strength, Luis affected much of the Leeward Islands on September 4 to September 6. Throughout the following days, Luis gradually weakened as it accelerated safely to the west of Bermuda. As a Category 1 hurricane, Luis made landfall on Newfoundland before it became extratropical on September 11.
Shortly before becoming extratropical, the hurricane-force radius wind field of Luis was the largest ever observed and measured for an Atlantic hurricane until 2019.
Luis was also responsible for an intense rogue wave which struck on September 11, though the ship pulled through with little damage.
Meteorological history
The origins of Hurricane Luis trace back to an area of disturbed weather associated with a tropical wave over the eastern Atlantic Ocean, on August 26. A low-level circulation center formed and moved westward until it developed a weak surface low on August 27; consequently, a tropical depression was designated at 1200 UTC that day. The depression attained 36 hours later into a Tropical Storm named "Luis" on August 29. Though convective activity fluctuated for the next two days as a result of nearby wind shear, the storm slowly intensified while pressure rose. The shear relented the next day, allowing an eye to gradually form, and the system attained hurricane status thereafter on early August 31, then a Category 3 major hurricane 18 hours later.Hurricane Luis continued to strengthen as it tracked west-northwestward into a Category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale on September 2 and the cyclone turned more towards the west earlier that day as it maintained a rectilinear slow motion; the intensity was confirmed by a reconnaissance flight on September 3. At this time, it was located approximately to the east of the Lesser Antilles. The storm began to slightly accelerate as it moved along a subtropical ridge due to the absorption of Karen by the stronger Iris.
By the day of September 4, Luis sustained a large wind field as it approach the Lesser Antilles, its tropical storm-force winds measured from to in diameter as it begin to affected in the night Antigua, Barbuda, Dominica and Guadeloupe. On the morning of September 5, islands such as Dominica and even the islands of Guadeloupe, where it experienced hurricane-force winds on the northeastern coast of Grande-Terre and Désirade, has been relatively spared by the storm. However the eyewall of the hurricane skimmed Antigua and directly passing over Barbuda while weakened slightly. During the time, it proceeded slowly northwestward affecting Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Eustatius and Saba causing moderate damage. Later, Luis moved along St. Barthelemy, St. Martin and ultimately crossed Anguilla, where maximum sustained winds within the eyewall were estimated to have reached, and its central pressure had dropped from.
A large and powerful hurricane, Luis retained Category 4 intensity until September 7, while situated about to the north of Puerto Rico. The storm gradually re-curved over the northern Atlantic as a Category 2 storm, after having spent 7 consecutive days as a major hurricane with maximum sustained winds of at least, from September 1 to 8. From there on, the center of the storm passed to the west of Bermuda on September 9 causing minor damage, and then later weakened to a Category 2 hurricane, with winds of 110 mph. Several hours later, the hurricane made its closest approach to Bermuda, passing about 200 mi west of the island. Later that day, the storm began to accelerate as it traveled northeast ahead of a strong trough located to the northwest of Luis. During the afternoon of September 10, Hurricane Luis began to undergo an extratropical transition as it rapidly approached the Canadian coastline. Due to the rapid movement of the storm, significant weakening did not occur until Luis was at an unusually high latitude as the central pressure of the storm decreased to 961 mbar but sustained winds did not exceed 90 mph according to the NHC.
Luis maintained this intensity until it made landfall on the Avalon Peninsula in eastern Newfoundland early on September 11. While tracking over Newfoundland, cold, dry air became entrenched in Luis's circulation and the system began to merge with the approaching trough. The NHC issued their final advisory on Hurricane Luis at 0900 UTC on September 11, as the system tracked nearly 65 mph to the northeast and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 11, and moved ashore on eastern Newfoundland. The extratropical remnants of Luis persisted for 30 more hours over the North Atlantic Ocean, before being absorbed by the trough near the southern coast of Greenland, late on September 12.
Preparations
Three days before devastation occurred in the northern Lesser Antilles, Hurricane Luis became a Category 4 hurricane and was forecasted to avoid those area well to the north, following Humberto and Karen. However, as Karen neared Iris, it weakened and was absorbed by a stronger Iris while influenced by the subtropical ridge, which ended up steering Luis to the west.Leeward Islands and Puerto Rico
Due to its slow motion, giving local officials ample time to prepare. In advance of the storm, tropical cyclone watches and warnings were declared in several areas throughout the Caribbean. Seventeen watches and/or warnings were issued in association with Luis. The first two were a hurricane watch issued on Antigua, Barbuda and Guadeloupe on September 2 at 2200 UTC. Five hours later, a tropical storm watch was issued for Dominica. At 2100 UTC, a hurricane warning was issued for Antigua, Barbuda and a hurricane watch for Guadeloupe. At 1500 UTC, Puerto Rico was put under a tropical storm watch. At 1700 UTC, Guadeloupe, St. Barthelemy, and French portion of St. Martin were put under a hurricane warning. Four hours later, Puerto Rico, U.S. and British Virgin Islands were put under a tropical storm warning, this is including Martinique and Saint Lucia.Bermuda and Canada
Additionally, a tropical storm warning was also issued for Bermuda on September 7, all of which were canceled by September 10.The Canadian Hurricane Centre began issuing advisories on the morning of September 8 after the trajectory of Luis began to curve east of Florida, about 48 hours before its entry into the center's coverage area. The Maritimes Center of the Meteorological Service of Canada issued warnings for affected areas as early as 9 September, 36 hours before the arrival of the storm.
Impact
Leeward Islands
Overall, Luis caused extensive crop and property damage across the Leeward Islands due to its high associated powerful winds and heavy rainfall. The exact amount of damage caused by the storm is unknown due to lack of reports from affected areas since Iris, though it is estimated at $3 billion.Antigua and Barbuda
As a result of a direct hit from the Category 4 hurricane, Barbuda experienced very extensive damage to residences from 135 mph winds and over of rain. According to the islands' Prime Minister, most houses were damaged or eradicated at 70% in Barbuda, and nearly 45% of the residences on Antigua were damaged or destroyed by the hurricane as it passed near to the north of the island. Across the islands, numerous inhabitants experienced power outages and disrupted water systems. The storm ultimately accounted for three deaths and injured 165 locals; 32.000 inhabitants on both islands were greatly affected, forced 1,700 people to take shelter and left approximately 3,000 others homeless.A U.S. station on Antigua said it lost its wind recording instrument when gusts reached 146 mph and a minimal pressure at 971 mb while an amateur radio reported an unconfirmed gust of 175 mph in Barbuda.
Throughout the country, the total damage from the storm was estimated $350 million or 60% of the country's GDP worth of damage was assessed.
International aid was sought after the storm had made its passing, with shelter and food supplies being the most needed.
Guadeloupe
Luis caused some damage as it passed near north of Guadeloupe, essentially of Grande-Terre. Hurricane-force conditions resulted in moderate damage to homes and roofs, uprooted trees, and severe beach erosion.Meanwhile, the Basse-Terre region received minor damage, except to banana crops that been damaged at nearly 90% and sugar cane crops on the north at nearly 20%. Additionally, of rain were recorded in the islands while the mountains regions recorded up to as the highest rainfall was in La Grande Soufrière within the 48-hour period, which damaged some roads specifically in the west coast where high waves washed away houses and the coastal road. The meteorological office in Raizet recorded sustained winds of with gusts reached very near, reported a fall in minimal pressure to 994 mb around 3 to 4 am on September 5 and a total of rain during the whole period. Only the easternmost island Desirade, recorded a hurricane force-wind at and a sustained gust at between 3 and 4 on September 5 and a 992 mb pressure. The storm claimed the life of a 29-year-old French tourist, who had been dragged away by vigorous waves on a pier in eastern Saint-François. The total damage was estimated at 250 million francs, especially for the crops and the roads.
St. Barthelemy
The islands suffered extensive damages from 135 mph winds as the hurricane passed at least 20 miles north of Saint Barthelemy. The main weather station recorded wind gust at 100 mph before the anenometer broke. Other station suggest wind speeds of 125 mph and gusts of up to 155 mph ; this difference may be due to local effects produced by mountainous terrain on the island and the aircraft sampling winds at a level above the region of maximum winds. Additionally, minimal recorded pressure was at as the storm made its closest approach and stayed below for at least 24 hours period.St. Martin
The island received the hardest condition of the eyewall as Luis passed to northeast of St. Martin, causing very extensive to catastrophic damage at 60%, especially in the Dutch side and spawning several F3 tornadoes. A total of of rain has been recorded on the island's territory during the 48 hours period.French Side
In Grand Case bay, 90% of the houses were damaged or destroyed as a result of rough sea conditions and very strong winds. Extensive homes and vegetation damage was also common in other towns, such as the French Quarter and Marigot, as the hurricane affected and damaged at least 50% of houses on the French side which roughly 950 to 2,000 were left homeless.The Met office on the estimated some wind gust over 130 mph while an unofficial anenometer in Marigot's port recorded wind gusts at before the instrument been knocked.
Luis killed one in the French side and due to the lack of insurances, the preliminary cost of the hurricane set as at least to 2 billions francs or $350 billion worth of damage.
Dutch Side
The other side of island receive a more catastrophic damage as in the northern side due to the strongest winds, that came onshore of the southern side of the island as the main city Philipsburg, where at least 70% decimated by the storm. It also caused the Great Salt Pond to deluge several streets, leaving them partially submerged by 1 feet.At least 70% of the residences of the Dutch's 30,000 people were damaged as nearly 15% of them were completely destroyed as some of them made uninhabitable, this is including businesses, churches, main airport terminal, hotels, and some schools. More than 5,000 Haitians on their district in the Dutch quarter where left homeless while some towns in the island spent nearly 3 months without water and power. Of the 1,500 boats sheltered in Simpson Bay Lagoon, nearly 1,300 or 85% were sunken or run aground. The storm officially claimed the death of eight, with the possibility of more deaths due by drowned in the lagoon.
Princess Juliana Airport recorded sustained winds with maximum gusts of ; the barometric pressure at its lowest fell between. Tropical storm-force winds brushed the islands for approximately 21 hours, while hurricane-force sustained winds lasted up to 8 hours as the hurricane passed with minimal forward speed between to. Total damages in the Dutch side was astronomic, accounted for $1.8 billion worth of damage.
As such, Luis was the most devastating Hurricane to hit the islands since Hurricane Donna in 1960.
Anguilla
The eye of the hurricane passed over the northeastern tip of Anguilla. Although the island would have sustained worst damage than of St. Martin, total damage was still unknown. Luis was the worst hurricane the island suffered from 1960's Hurricane Donna.St. Kitts and Nevis
Luis passed nearly northeast that caused very severe beach erosion, moderate damage to residences and leaving at least 2,000 homeless on Saint Kitts and Nevis. The vegetation and some of the road infrastructure was badly damaged as a result of the storm, with problems essentially arising in relation to the poor water system. Total damage ultimately reached to $197 million.Dominica
As Luis passed nearly at north, majority of the damage experienced in Dominica was inflicted to banana crops that had already been damaged from Iris at 70%. While overall damages was fairly minor, beach erosion was common and that disrupt and washed few beach hotels and coastal roads, where about 1,000 people were left homeless, due to rough waves on the northeastern and the western coast of the island's town such as Marigot, Roseau and Portsmouth. tropical Storm force-wind affected most part of the islands from the earliest on September 5 until the afternoon of the same day and lowest pressure recorded was between. Ultimately, a fisherman was confirmed killed due to rough sea conditions. All in all, property damage was estimated at $47 million; the storm contributed to the effects of Hurricane Iris, which had struck the country a week before and Hurricane Marilyn, 10 days after total at $184 million.Puerto Rico
Luis passed at northeast of Puerto Rico, causing minor damages in the east.There were two deaths reported in the islands.
Bermuda
Bermuda reported sustained winds of ; however, little to no damage has been reported. Offshore, the storm produced waves approaching in height.Eastern United States and offshore
Rough seas from the storm affected the U.S. East Coast, resulting in some beach erosion and damage to two waterfront structures on Fire Island. On September 7, rip currents produced by Luis caused the death of one person near Corncake Inlet, North Carolina. High waves, in combination with high tide, caused significant beach erosion and coastal flooding. In Brunswick County, eight homes were washed away by the waves and of beach was lost. In Hyde, Carteret, and Onslow Counties, waves up to washed out of the Triple S Pier in Atlantic Beach was destroyed. Total losses in North Carolina amounted to $1.9 million. In New York, rough seas undermined one home, destroyed it and led to the death of one person who was swimming in the high waves.Atlantic Canada
On September 11, a rogue wave triggered by Luis slammed when it was about south of eastern Newfoundland. At about the same time, a nearby Canadian buoy recorded a. Though the ship did not sustain any significant damage, its arrival in New York was delayed considerably.Throughout eastern Newfoundland, the system dropped of rain at its landfall as a Category 1. Northwesterly winds there gusted to. The storm caused minor damage to the large province. One storm-related death was reported in Canada. Flooding from Luis caused an estimated $500,000 in damages.
Aftermath and economic impact
Antigua, Barbuda, Dominica and St. Kitts and Nevis
By September 29, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs provided both Antigua and Barbuda and the Netherlands Antilles with $50,000 in emergency funds. Furthermore, the United Nations Development Programme provided $50,000 for both Barbados and the Netherlands Antilles. For the reconstruction of schools, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization provided $20,000 to Antigua and Barbuda, $15,000 to Dominica, and $5,000 to St. Kitts and Nevis. The United Nations Children's Fund provided a cash grant of $20,000 to all the affected islands. The European Community Humanitarian Aid Office provided relief goods, such as plastic sheeting, water containers, blankets, and basic medical supplies worth $1.2 million. The Organization of American States provided an emergency cash grant of $250,000 for Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, and St. Kitts and Nevis. The Government of Australia provided Antigua and Barbuda with $37,593 in relief funds; the Government of the Bahamas provided $50,000 to the affected areas in emergency funds; the Government of Canada donated $149,253 to the Pan American Health Organization and $44,760 to the affected areas; the Government of France contributed $200,000 in emergency funds to Antigua and Barbuda; the Government of Germany provided $52,817 in emergency funds to St. Kitts and Nevis; the Government of Jamaica deployed military recovery teams to affected regions to assist with rehabilitation and cleanup efforts; the Government of Japan contributed $150,000 in emergency funds to the affected region; the Government of Norway provided $50,000 in cash assistance to Antigua and Barbuda and St. Kitts and Nevis; the Government of the Netherlands provided $15.2 million in emergency funds and recovery funds to the Netherlands Antilles; the Government of New Zealand provided a cash assist of $32,942 to Antigua and Barbuda; the Government of Spain contributed $15,873 in emergency funds to the affected regions.Saint Martin
Aside from high winds and seas, possible explanation for the storm's heavy damage may have been complacency on the part of local island populations and their houses. Another factual reason was substantial difference in wind speed forecasts measured at sea-level Princess Juliana Airport on the Dutch side and those measured on homes throughout the island hillsides & broadcast from sites off the island. Sea-level Airport readings showed 86 mph sustained winds and winds gusting to 114 mph.Whereas measurements on some hillside homes and especially the airport on the north of the French side, between two mountains, showed wind gusts between 170 and 200 mph. A sailor that been sheltered in the lagoon recorded a 115 mph winds gusting and a minimal pressure reading to.
Records and retirement
When Tropical Depression Thirteen strengthened into Tropical Storm Luis on August 29, it marked the earliest date on which the twelfth named storm of any season formed, surpassing the previous record set by Tropical Storm Twelve of the 1933 season.Shortly before becoming extratropical, Hurricane Luis was moving at 65 mph, becoming one of the fastest moving Atlantic hurricanes in recorded history.
With a hurricane force-wind field expanding over 130 miles from the center, it was the largest radius of hurricane-force winds measured for an Atlantic hurricane until Lorenzo in 2019
It was also one of the most intense extratropical cyclones by windspeed; while being in that stage it achieved major hurricane-force winds near Newfoundland. Extratropical cyclones usually only have windspeeds ranging from 45 to 80 miles per hour.
On September 11, a wave struck an ocean liner. This wave is the largest wave ever recorded; however, Hurricane Ivan in 2004 may have produced a wave up to high off the coast of Mexico.
Since 1950, there have been very few Atlantic hurricanes that have had an Accumulated cyclone energy index over 50. As it spent nearly fourteen days as a named storm and seven consecutive days as a major hurricane, Luis achieved and ACE value of 53.9, which was the highest since Inez in 1966 and remained the highest until being surpassed by Isabel in 2003.
Due to the severe damage and loss of life caused by the storm in the Leeward Islands, the name "Luis" was retired in the spring of 1996, and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane. It was replaced with "Lorenzo" in the 2001 season. Luis was the first Atlantic hurricane name beginning with "L" to have its name retired and the first hurricane to be retired in three years since Hurricane Andrew in 1992.
this interval of 3 years of retired hurricane names was also the case between the seasons of 1980-1983 and 1985-1988