Hakka Chinese


Hakka is a language group of varieties of Chinese, spoken natively by the Hakka people throughout southern China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau and throughout the diaspora areas of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and in overseas Chinese communities around the world.
Due to its primary usage in scattered isolated regions where communication is limited to the local area, Hakka has developed numerous varieties or dialects, spoken in different provinces, such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Fujian, Sichuan, Hunan, Jiangxi and Guizhou, as well as in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. Hakka is not mutually intelligible with Yue, Wu, Southern Min, Mandarin or other branches of Chinese, and itself contains a few mutually unintelligible varieties. It is most closely related to Gan and is sometimes classified as a variety of Gan, with a few northern Hakka varieties even being partially mutually intelligible with southern Gan. There is also a possibility that the similarities are just a result of shared areal features.
Taiwan is a center for the study and preservation of the language. Pronunciation differences exist between the Taiwanese Hakka dialects and Mainland China's Hakka dialects; even in Taiwan, two major local varieties of Hakka exist.
The Meixian dialect of northeast Guangdong in China has been taken as the "standard" dialect by the People's Republic of China. The Guangdong Provincial Education Department created an official romanization of Moiyen in 1960, one of four languages receiving this status in Guangdong.

Etymology

The name of the Hakka people who are the predominant original native speakers of the variety literally means "guest families" or "guest people": Hak 客 means "guest", and ka 家 means "family". Among themselves, Hakka people variously called their language Hak-ka-fa 客家話, Hak-fa 客話, Tu-gong-dung-fa 土廣東話, literally "Native Guangdong language", and Ngai-fa ?話, "My/our language". In Tonggu County, Jiangxi province, people call their language Huai-yuan-fa.

History

Early history

It is commonly believed that Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest dating back as far as the end of Western Jin. The forebears of the Hakka came from present-day Central Plains provinces of Henan and Shaanxi, and brought with them features of Chinese varieties spoken in those areas during that time.. The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants, as are found in other modern southern Chinese varieties, but which have been lost in Mandarin.
Laurent Sagart considers Hakka and southern Gan Chinese to be sister dialects that descended from a single common ancestral language spoken in central Jiangxi during the Song Dynasty. In Hakka and southern Gan, Sagart identifies a non-Chinese substratum that is possibly Hmong-Mien, an archaic layer, and a more recent Late Middle Chinese layer. Lexical connections between Hakka, Kra-Dai, and Hmong-Mien have also been suggested by Deng.
Due to the migration of its speakers, Hakka may have been influenced by other language areas through which the Hakka-speaking forebears migrated. For instance, common vocabulary is found in Hakka, Min, and the She languages. Today, most She people in Fujian and Zhejiang speak Shehua, which is closely related to Hakka.

Linguistic development

A regular pattern of sound change can generally be detected in Hakka, as in most Chinese varieties, of the derivation of phonemes from earlier forms of Chinese. Some examples:

Dialects

Hakka has as many regional dialects as there are counties with Hakka speakers as the majority. Some of these Hakka dialects are not mutually intelligible with each other. Meixian is surrounded by the counties of Pingyuan, Dabu, Jiaoling, Xingning, Wuhua, and Fengshun. Each county has its own special phonological points of interest. For instance, Xingning lacks the codas and. These have merged into and, respectively. Further away from Meixian, the Hong Kong dialect lacks the medial, so, whereas Meixian pronounces the character 光 as, Hong Kong Hakka dialect pronounces it as, which is similar to the Hakka spoken in neighbouring Shenzhen.
As much as endings and vowels are important, the tones also vary across the dialects of Hakka. The majority of Hakka dialects have six tones. However, there are dialects which have lost all of their checked tone, and the characters originally of this tone class are distributed across the non-Ru tones. Such a dialect is Changting which is situated in the Western Fujian province. Moreover, there is evidence of the retention of an earlier Hakka tone system in the dialects of Haifeng and Lufeng situated on coastal south eastern Guangdong province. They contain a yin-yang splitting in the Qu tone, giving rise to seven tones in all.
In Taiwan, there are two main dialects: Sixian and Hailu. Most Hakka dialect speakers found on Taiwan originated from these two regions. Sixian speakers come from Jiaying Prefecture, mainly from the four counties of Chengxiang, Zhengping, Xingning and Pingyuan. Most dialects of Taiwanese Hakka, except Sixian and Dabu, preserved postalveolar consonants, which are uncommon in other southern Chinese varieties.
Ethnologue reports the dialects as Yue-Tai, Yuezhong , Huizhou, Yuebei, Tingzhou, Ning-Long, Yugui, Tonggu.

Vocabulary

Like other southern Chinese varieties, Hakka retains single syllable words from earlier stages of Chinese; thus a large number of syllables are distinguished by tone and final consonant. This reduces the need for compounding or making words of more than one syllable. However, it is also similar to other Chinese varieties in having words which are made from more than one syllable.
Hakka hanziPronunciationEnglishNotes
person-
bowl-
dog-
cow-
house-
mouth-
me / IIn Hakka, the standard Chinese equivalent is pronounced.
or he / she / itIn Hakka, the standard Chinese equivalents / / / are pronounced.

Hakka hanziPronunciationEnglish
sun
moon
home
home
telephone
school
chopsticks

Hakka, as well as numerous other Chinese varieties such as Min and Cantonese, prefers the verb when referring to saying rather than the Mandarin shuō .
Hakka uses , like Cantonese for the verb "to eat" and for "to drink", unlike Mandarin which prefers chī as "to eat" and hē as "to drink" where the meanings in Hakka are different, to stutter and to be thirsty respectively.
Hakka hanziIPAEnglish
阿妹，若姆去投墟轉來唔曾？Has your mother returned from going to the market yet, child?
其老弟捉到隻蛘葉來搞。His/her younger brother caught a butterfly to play with.
好冷阿，水桶个水敢凝冰阿。It's very cold, the water in the bucket has frozen over.

Writing systems

Various dialects of Hakka have been written in a number of Latin orthographies, largely for religious purposes, since at least the mid-19th century.
Previously, the single largest work in Hakka was the New Testament and Psalms, but since 2012 that has been surpassed by the publication of the complete Hakka Bible known as the and includes the Old Testament along with audio recordings. These works render Hakka in both romanization and Han characters and are based on the dialects of Taiwanese Hakka speakers. The work of Biblical translation is being performed by missionaries of the Presbyterian Church in Canada.
The popular The Little Prince has also been translated into Hakka, specifically the Miaoli dialect of Taiwan. This also was dual-script, albeit using the Tongyong Pinyin scheme.

Media

is a state-run, primarily Hakka-language television channel in Taiwan that started in 2003. In mainland China, Meizhou Televisions's Hakka Public Channel has broadcasts 24 hours a day in Hakka since 2006.