Feudal fragmentation

• In the history of England, the Heptarchy
• In the history of Poland, the regionalization or fragmentation of Poland refers to the period following the testament of Bolesław Krzywousty that led to the split of the Kingdom of Poland into several mostly independent provinces, unified only by Władysław Łokietek approximately two centuries later, in the early 14th century
• In the history of Russia, the period of fragmentation lasted from around the 12th or 13th century to 1547, the year of the ascension of Ivan IV to the throne of the Grand Duchy of Moscow
• In the history of Bulgaria, the late 14th century fragmentation of the Second Bulgarian Empire
• In the history of Serbia, the Fall of the Serbian Empire
• In the history of Germany, the period described as Kleinstaaterei lasted from the 13th century to 1871
• After the extinction of the Duchy of Burgundy, some of its territory was absorbed by France's Louis XI, while its territory in the Low Countries became the Habsburg Netherlands, which itself splintered into the Spanish Netherlands and the Dutch Republic
• In the history of France, the period after the fall of the Carolingian dynasty and death of Charlemagne to its unification by Louis XI
• In the history of Italy, the period from the invasion of Italy by the Lombards until Italian unification