Deerfield embroidery developed from the efforts of the Deerfield Society of Blue and White Needlework in Deerfield, Massachusetts in the 1890s. Margaret C. Whiting and Ellen Miller formed the society in 1896 as a way to help residents boost the town's economy by reviving American needlework from the 1700s. This society was inspired by the crewel work of 18th-century women who had lived in the Deerfield, Massachusetts area. Members of the Blue and White Society initially used the patterns and stitches from these earlier works, but because these new embroideries were not meant to replicate the earlier works, the embroidery soon deviated from the original versions with new patterns and stitches, and even the use of linen, rather than wool, thread. The society disbanded in 1926 for several reasons. Ellen Miller was in declining health, the trained stitchers were getting old and couldn't continue, Margaret Whiting's sight was fading, and the design and quality of commercially produced items was increasing.
Founding
Margaret C. Whiting and Ellen Miller were descended from Colonial families, though they were not originally from Deerfield. The Miller family, with two daughters, had come to Deerfield from the nearby town of Hatfield in 1893, and in 1895 Mrs. Calvin Whiting arrived with her two daughters from Holyoke. The families were already friends, and Margaret and Ellen may have known each other while both were students at the New York Academy of Design. By the middle of the 19th century, Deerfield's population was declining, with young peoplemoving away. There was a focus amongst those who stayed on Deerfield's history, and this was reflected in the establishment in 1870 of the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association, which actively collected local artifacts, which formed the basis of the Memorial Hall Museum, which opened to the public in 1880. This local interest in heritage served as the setting for the founding of the Deerfield Society of Blue and White Needlework. Whiting and Miller carefully examined historical crewel embroidery of the area as found in the possession of residents and in Memorial Hall Museum. Using these pieces as learning tools, they mastered the stitches and motifs used by the colonial embroiderers. As their work became known, not only were people interested in buying it, but also learning to produce it. Whiting and Miller formed a cooperative, the Deerfield Society of Blue and White Needlework, in which the stitching members shared in the proceeds of the sales.
The business
Miller and Whiting hired workers—four to start—and provided them with the needed materials. They offered classes for beginners, in order to train additional qualified women. Eventually, between 25 and 30 women, ranging in age from 19 to 70, actively participated in the Society at a given time. Women were paid based on the work that they did. The time that would be needed to complete each element of each pattern was determined, so workers who were quick and precise would be at an advantage. The average earning was 20 cents per hour, and average annual earnings ranged from 75 cents and $139. Prices for completed items were based on the cost of the materials, the time to design a project, and the stitching time. In 1904, costs ranged from $1.50 for a 6" doily to table squares up to $30. These costs were many times more expensive than manufactured linens of high quality. Initially, the Society members based their work on the historical examples. The designs were taken from those in the local museum and from those owned privately. Motifs were used as needed for design purposes, and therefore deviated from the source pieces. At the start, blue threads were used on white fabric. Different sources report that these threads were of linen or wool. Both Whiting and Miller, using their design training, soon developed new designs, and eventually started using threads in other colors, such as greens, madder, and fustic. They experimented with applique and cross-stitch. Works emanating from the Society were trademarked with a letter "D" in the center of a spinning wheel.
The Arts and Crafts movement influenced the Deerfield Society both in its organization and its use of materials. The Society engaged in hand craftsmanship, something that was waning in the Industrial Age. In connection with this rejection of mass produced materials, members of the Society sought out handmade materials. Whiting and Miller used vegetable dyes in order to create the colors of the wool threads, and handwoven linen fabric was bought for use as the background from Berea College and weavers in Vermont and Georgia.
The Society's founding had an impact on other craft revivals in the town: rag rugs and linens were woven, baskets were woven by two groups, one that called themselves the Deerfield Basket Makers and another at the north end of town, the Pocumtuck Basket Makers. Individuals worked with iron, silver and copper, and photography.
