Chechen language


Chechen is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by some 1.4 million people, mostly in the Chechen Republic and by members of the Chechen diaspora throughout Europe, Russia, Jordan, Central Asia and Georgia.

Classification

Chechen is a Northeast Caucasian language. Together with the closely related Ingush, with which there exists a large degree of mutual intelligibility and shared vocabulary, it forms the Vainakh branch.

Dialects

There are a number of Chechen dialects: Akkish, Chantish, Chebarloish, Malkhish, Nokhchmakhkakhoish, Orstkhoish, Sharoish, Shuotoish, Terloish, Itum-Qalish and Himoish. The Kisti dialect of Georgia is not easily understood by northern Chechens without a few days' practice. One difference in pronunciation is that Kisti aspirated consonants remain aspirated when doubled or after /s/, whereas they lose their aspiration in other dialects in these situations.
Dialects of Chechen can be classified by their geographic position within the Chechen Republic. The dialects of the northern lowlands are often referred to as "Oharoy muott" and the dialect of the southern mountain tribes is known as "Laamaroy muott". Oharoy muott forms the basis for much of the standard and literary Chechen language, which can largely be traced to the regional dialects of Urus-Martan and contemporary Grozny. Laamaroy dialects include Chebarloish, Sharoish, Itum-Qalish, Kisti, and Himoish. Until recently, however, Himoy was undocumented and was considered a branch of Sharoish, as many dialects are also used as the basis of intertribal communication within a larger Chechen "tukkhum". Laamaroy dialects such as Sharoish, Himoish and Chebarloish are more conservative and retain many features from Proto–Chechen. For instance, many of these dialects lack a number of vowels found in the standard language which were a result of long-distance assimilation between vowel sounds. Additionally, the Himoy dialect preserves word-final, post-tonic vowels as a schwa , indicating Laamaroy and Ohwaroy dialects were already separate at the time that Oharoy dialects were undergoing assimilation.

Geographic distribution

According to the Russian Census of 2010, 1,350,000 people reported being able to speak Chechen.

Official status

Chechen is an official language of Chechnya.

Jordan

Chechens in Jordan have good relations with the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and are able to practice their own culture and language. Chechen language usage is strong among the Chechen community in Jordan. Jordanian Chechens are bilingual in both Chechen and Arabic, but do not speak Arabic among themselves, only speaking Chechen to other Chechens. Some Jordanians are literate in Chechen as well, having managed to read and write to people visiting Jordan from Chechnya.

Phonology

Some phonological characteristics of Chechen include its wealth of consonants and sounds similar to Arabic and the Salishan languages of North America, as well as a large vowel system resembling those of Swedish and German.

Consonants

The Chechen language has, like most indigenous languages of the Caucasus, a large number of consonants: about 40 to 60, far more than do most European languages. Typical of the region, a four-way distinction between voiced, voiceless, ejective, and geminate fortis stops is found.
Nearly any consonant may be fortis because of focus gemination, but only the ones above are found in roots.
The consonants of the t cell and are denti-alveolar; the others of that column are alveolar.
is a back velar, but not quite uvular.
The lateral may be velarized, unless it's followed by a front vowel.
The trill is usually articulated with a single contact, and therefore sometimes described as a tap.
Except in the literary register, and even then only for some speakers, the voiced affricates, have merged into the fricatives,. A voiceless labial fricative is found only in European loanwords.
appears both in diphthongs and as a consonant; as a consonant, it has an allophone before front vowels.
Approximately twenty pharyngealized consonants also appear in the table above. Labial, alveolar, and postalveolar consonants may be pharyngealized, except for ejectives. Pharyngealized consonants do not occur in verbs or adjectives, and in nouns and adverbs they occur predominantly before the low vowels .
Except when following a consonant, is phonetically, and can be argued to be a glottal stop before a "pharyngealized" vowel. However, it does not have the distribution constraints characteristic of the anterior pharyngealized consonants. Although these may be analyzed as an consonant plus , Nichols argues that given the severe constraints against consonant clusters in Chechen, it is more useful to analyze them as single consonants.
The voiceless alveolar trill contrasts with the voiced version, but only occurs in two roots, vworh "seven" and barh "eight".

Vowels

Unlike most other languages of the Caucasus, Chechen has an extensive inventory of vowel sounds, about 44, putting its range higher than most languages of Europe. Many of the vowels are due to umlaut, which is highly productive in the standard dialect. None of the spelling systems used so far have distinguished the vowels with complete accuracy.
front
unrounded		front
rounded		back~
central

All vowels may be nasalized. Nasalization is imposed by the genitive, infinitive, and for some speakers the nominative case of adjectives. Nasalization is not strong, but it is audible even in final vowels, which are devoiced.
Some of the diphthongs have significant allophony: = ; = ; =.
In closed syllables, long vowels become short in most dialects, but are often still distinct from short vowels, though which remain distinct depends on the dialect. and are in complementary distribution but speakers strongly feel that they are distinct sounds.
Pharyngealization appears to be a feature of the consonants, though some analyses treat it as a feature of the vowels. However, Nichols argues that this does not capture the situation in Chechen well, whereas it is more clearly a feature of the vowel in Ingush: Chechen "one", Ingush, which she analyzes as and. Vowels have a delayed murmured onset after pharyngealized voiced consonants and a noisy aspirated onset after pharyngealized voiceless consonants. The high vowels are diphthongized,, whereas the diphthongs undergo metathesis,.

Phonotactics

Chechen permits syllable-initial clusters, and non-initially also allows plus any consonant, and any obstruent plus a uvular of the same manner of articulation. The only cluster of three consonants permitted is.

Grammar

Chechen is an agglutinative language with an ergative–absolutive morphosyntactic alignment. Chechen nouns belong to one of several genders or classes, each with a specific prefix with which the verb or an accompanying adjective agrees. The verb does not agree with person or number, having only tense forms and participles. Among these are an optative and an antipassive. Some verbs, however, do not take these prefixes.
Chechen is an ergative, dependent-marking language using eight cases and a large number of postpositions to indicate the role of nouns in sentences.
Word order is consistently left-branching, so that adjectives, demonstratives and relative clauses precede the nouns they modify. Complementizers and adverbial subordinators, as in other Northeast and in Northwest Caucasian languages, are affixes rather than independent words.
Chechen also presents interesting challenges for lexicography, as creating new words in the language relies on fixation of whole phrases rather than adding to the end of existing words or combining existing words. It can be difficult to decide which phrases belong in the dictionary, because the language's grammar does not permit the borrowing of new verbal morphemes to express new concepts. Instead, the verb dan is combined with nominal phrases to correspond with new concepts imported from other languages.

Noun classes

Chechen nouns are divided into six lexically arbitrary noun classes. Morphologically, noun classes may be indexed by changes in the prefix of the accompanying verb and, in many cases, the adjective too. The first two of these classes apply to human beings, although some grammarians count these as two and some as a single class; the other classes however are much more lexically arbitrary. Chechen noun classes are named according to the prefix that indexes them:
Noun classNoun exampleSingular prefixPlural prefixSingular agreementPlural agreement
1. v-classk'ant v-b- / d-k'ant v-eza v-u 'the boy is heavy'k'entii d-eza d-u 'the boys are heavy'
2. y-classzuda y-b- / d-zuda y-eza y-u 'the woman is heavy'zudari b-eza b-u 'the women are heavy
3. y-class IIph'āgal y-y-ph'āgal y-eza y-u 'the rabbit is heavy'ph'āgalash y-eza y-u 'the rabbits are heavy'
4. d-classnaž d-d-naž d-eza d-u 'the oak is heavy'niežnash d-eza d-u 'the oaks are heavy'
5. b-classmangal b-b- / Ø-mangal b-eza b-u 'the scythe is heavy'mangalash b-eza b-u 'the scythes are heavy'
6. b-class IIˤaž b-d-ˤaž b-eza b-u 'the apple is heavy'ˤežash d-eza d-u 'the apples are heavy'

When a noun denotes a human being, it usually falls into v- or y-Classes. Most nouns referring to male entities fall into the v-class, whereas Class 2 contains words related to female entities. Thus lūlaxuo is class 1, but takes v- if a male neighbour and y- if a female. In a few words, changing the prefixes before the nouns indicates grammatical gender; thus: vоsha → yisha. Some nouns denoting human beings, however, are not in Classes 1 or 2: bēr for example is in class 3.

Classed adjectives

Only a few of Chechen's adjectives index noun class agreement, termed classed adjectives in the literature. Classed adjectives are listed with the -d class prefix in the romanizations below:
Whereas Indo-European languages code noun class and case conflated in the same morphemes, Chechen nouns show no gender marking but decline in eight grammatical cases, four of which are core cases in singular and plural. Below the paradigm for "говр".
Casesingularplural
absolutiveговр gourговраш gourash
genitiveговран gouranговрийн gouriin
dativeговрана gournaговрашна gourashna
ergativeговро gouruoговраша gourasha
allativeговре gourieговрашка gourashka
instrumentalговраца gouratsaговрашца gourashtsa
locativeговрах gouraxговрех gouriäx
comparativeговрал gouralговрел gouriäl

Pronouns

Case1SGIPA2SGIPA3SGIPA1PL InclusiveIPA1PL ExclusiveIPA2PLIPA3PLIPA
absolutiveсо/sʷɔ/хьо/ʜʷɔ/и, иза/ɪ/, /ɪzə/вай/vəɪ/тхо/txʷʰo/шу/ʃu/уьш, уьзаш/yʃ/, /yzəʃ/
genitiveсан/sən/хьан/ʜən/цуьнан/tsʰynən/вайн/vəɪn/тхан/txʰən/шун/ʃun/церан/tsʰierən/
dativeсуна/suːnə/хьуна/ʜuːnə/цунна/tsʰunːə/вайна/vaɪnə/тхуна/txʰunə/шуна/ʃunə/царна/tsʰarnə/
ergativeас/ʔəs/ахь/əʜ/цо/tsʰuo/вай/vəɪ/оха/ʔɔxə/аша/ʔaʃə/цара/tsʰarə/
allativeсоьга/sɥœgə/хьоьга/ʜɥœgə/цуьнга/tsʰyngə/вайга/vaɪgə/тхоьга/txʰɥœgə/шуьга/ʃygə/цаьрга/tsʰærgə/
instrumentalсоьца/sɥœtsʰə/хьоьца/ʜɥœtsʰə/цуьнца/tsʰyntsʰə/вайца/vaɪtsʰə/тхоьца/txʰɥœtsʰə/шуьца/ʃytsʰə/цаьрца/tsʰærtsʰə
locativeсох/sʷɔx/хьох/ʜʷɔx/цунах/tsʰunəx/вайх/vəɪx/тхох/txʰʷɔx/шух/ʃux/царах/tsʰarəx/
comparativeсол/sʷɔl/хьол/ʜʷɔl/цул/tsʰul/вайл/vəɪl/тхол/txʰʷɔl/шул/ʃul/царел/tsʰarɛl/

Possessive pronouns
1SG2SG3SG1PL inclusive1PL exclusive2PL3PL
reflexive possessive pronounsсайнхьайншенвешантхайншайншайн
substantives сайнигхьайнигшенигвешанигтхайнигшайнигшайниг

The locative still has a few further forms for specific positions

Verbs

Verbs do not inflect for person, only for number and tense, aspect, mood. A minority of verbs exhibit agreement prefixes, and these agree with the noun in the absolutive case.
Example of verbal agreement in intransitive clause with a composite verb:
Here, both the verb's future stem -oghur and the auxiliary -u receive the prefix v- for masculine agreement and y- for feminine agreement.
In transitive clauses in compound continuous tenses formed with the auxiliary verb -u 'to be', both agent and object are in absolutive case. In this special case of a biabsolutive construction, the main verb in participial form agrees with the object, while the auxiliary agrees with the agent.
Here, the participle d-iesh agree with the object, whereas the auxiliary v-u agrees with the agent.
Verbal tenses are formed by ablaut or suffixes, or both. Derived stems can be formed by suffixation as well :
TenseExample
Imperative д*ига
simple presentд*уьгу
present compositeд*уьгуш д*у
near preteriteд*игу
witnessed pastд*игира
perfectд*игна
plusquamperfectд*игнера
repeated preteriteд*уьгура
possible futureд*уьгур
real futureд*уьгур д*у

TempusBasic form Causative Permissive Permissive causative Potential Inceptive
Imperative маламаломалийтамалад*айтамалад*аламалад*āла
simple presentмолумалад*омолуьйтомалад*ойтумалаломалад*олу
near preteriteмалумалиймалийтималад*айтималад*елималад*ēли
witnessed pastмелирамалийрамалийтирамалад*айтирамалад*елирамалад*ēлира
perfectмелламалийнамалийтинамалад*айтинамалад*елламалад*аьлла
plusquamperfectмеллерамалийнермалийтинерамалад*айтинерамалад*елерамалад*аьллера
repeated pastмолурамалад*орамолуьйтурамалад*ойтурамалалора
possible futureмолурмалад*ермолуьйтурмалад*ойтурмалалурмалад*олур
real futureмолур д*умалад*ийр д*умолуьйтур д*умалад*ойтур д*умалалур д*умалад*олур д*у

Alphabets

Numerous inscriptions in the Georgian script are found in mountainous Chechnya, but they are not necessarily in Chechen. Later, the Arabic script was introduced for Chechen, along with Islam. The Chechen Arabic alphabet was first reformed during the reign of Imam Shamil, and then again in 1910, 1920 and 1922.
At the same time, the alphabet devised by Peter von Uslar, consisting of Cyrillic, Latin, and Georgian letters, was used for academic purposes. In 1911 it too was reformed but never gained popularity among the Chechens themselves.
The Latin alphabet was introduced in 1925. It was unified with Ingush in 1934, but abolished in 1938.
In 1938–1992, only the Cyrillic alphabet was used for Chechen.
CyrillicNameArabic
Modern
Latin		NameIPA
А ааآ /ɑː/, اA aa
Аь аьаьاÄ ää
Б ббэبB bbe
В ввэوV vve
Г ггэگG gge
Гӏ гӏгӏаغĠ ġġa
Д ддэدD dde
Е ееەE ee
Ё ёёیوٓyo etc.
Ж жжэجƵ ƶƶe
З ззэزZ zze
И ииیI ii
Ий ийییIy iy
Й й
доца иیY ydoca i
К ккکK kka
Кк ккککKk kk
Кх кхкхقQ qqa
Ккх ккхققQq qq
Къ къкъаڨQ̇ q̇q̇a
Кӏ кӏкӏаگ Kh khkha
Л ллэلL lel
М ммэمM mem
Н ннэنN nen
О ооووٓ, وٓ uoO oo
Ов ововوٓوOv ovov
Оь оьоьوٓÖ öö
П ппэفP ppe
Пп ппففPp pp
Пӏ пӏпӏаڢ ـٯPh phpha
Р ррэرR rer
Рхӏ рхӏرھRh rh
С ссэسS ses
Сс ссسسSs ss
Т ттэتT tte
Тт ттتتTt tt
Тӏ тӏтӏаطTh ththa
У ууوU uu
Ув увووUv uv
Уь уьуьوÜ üü
Уьй уьйуьйوÜy üyüy
Ф ффэفF fef
Х ххэخX xxa
Хь хьхьаحẊ ẋẋa
Хӏ хӏхӏаھH hha
Ц ццэر̤C cce
Цӏ цӏцӏаڗĊ ċċe
Ч ччэچҪ ҫҫe
Чӏ чӏчӏаڃҪ̇ ҫ̇ҫ̇e
Ш шшэشŞ şşa
Щ щщэ
ъчӏогӏа хьаьркئƏ əç̇oġa ẋärk
ыы
ькӏеда хьаьркkheda ẋärk
Э ээاەE ee etc.
Ю ююیوyu etc.
Юь юьюьیوyü etc.
Я яяیا، یآya etc.
Яь яьяьیاyä etc.
Ӏ ӏӏаعJ jja

Vocabulary

Most Chechen vocabulary is derived from the Nakh branch of the Northeast Caucasian language family, although there are significant minorities of words derived from Arabic and a smaller amount from Turkic and most recently Russian.

History

Before the Russian conquest, most writing in Chechnya consisted of Islamic texts and clan histories, written usually in Arabic but sometimes also in Chechen using Arabic script. The Chechen literary language was created after the October Revolution, and the Latin script began to be used instead of Arabic for Chechen writing in the mid-1920s. The Cyrillic script was adopted in 1938.
The Chechen diaspora in Jordan, Turkey, and Syria is fluent but generally not literate in Chechen except for individuals who have made efforts to learn the writing system, and of course as the Cyrillic alphabet is not generally known in these countries, most use Latin alphabet.