Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy

Background history

Imperial titles

Titles used by the emperors

• Basileus : the Greek word for "sovereign" which originally referred to any king in the Greek-speaking areas of the Roman Empire. It also referred to the Shahs of Persia. Heraclius adopted it in 629, and it became the Greek word for "emperor." Heraclius also used the titles autokrator and kyrios. The Byzantines reserved the term "basileus" among Christian rulers exclusively for the emperor in Constantinople, and referred to Western European kings as rēgas, a Hellenized form of the Latin word rex. The feminine form basilissa referred to an empress. Empresses were addressed as eusebestatē avgousta, and were also called kyria or despoina. Primogeniture, or indeed heredity itself, was never legally established in Byzantine imperial succession, because in principle the Roman Emperor was selected by common acclamation of the Senate, the People and the Army. This was rooted firmly in the Roman "republican" tradition, whereby hereditary kingship was rejected and the Emperor was nominally the convergence of several offices of the Republic onto one person. Many emperors, anxious to safeguard their firstborn son's right to the throne, had them crowned as co-emperors when they were still children, thus assuring that upon their own death the throne would not be even momentarily vacant. In such a case the need for an imperial selection never arose. In several cases the new Emperor ascended the throne after marrying the previous Emperor's widow, or indeed after forcing the previous Emperor to abdicate and become a monk. Several emperors were also deposed because of perceived inadequacy, e.g., after a military defeat, and some were murdered.
• Porphyrogennētos – "born in the purple": Emperors wanting to emphasize the legitimacy of their ascent to the throne appended this title to their names, meaning they were born in the delivery room of the imperial palace, to a reigning emperor, and were therefore legitimate beyond any claim to the contrary whatsoever.
• Autokratōr – "self-ruler": this title was originally equivalent to imperator, and was used by the emperors.
• Basileus Autokratōr was a combination of titles reserved for the senior of several ruling co-emperors, and denoted the person who held substantive political power.

  Titles used by the imperial family

• Despotēs – "Lord": This title was used by the emperors themselves since the time of Justinian I, and was an honorific address for the sons of reigning emperors. It was extensively featured in coins, in lieu of Basileus. In the 12th century, Manuel I Komnenos made it a separate title, the highest "awarded" title after the emperor. The first such despotēs was actually a foreigner, Bela III of Hungary, signifying that Hungary was considered a Byzantine tributary state. In later times, a despot could be the holder of a despotate; for example, the Despotate of Morea, centred at Mistra, was held by the heir to the Byzantine throne after 1261. The feminine form, despoina, referred to a female despot or the wife of a despot, but it was also used to address the Empress.
• Sebastokratōr – "Venerable Ruler": a title created by Alexios I Komnenos as a combination of autokratōr and sebastos. The first sebastokratōr was Alexios' brother Isaakios. It was essentially a meaningless title, which signified only a close relationship with the Emperor, but ranked immediately after the despotēs. The feminine form was sebastokratorissa. The first foreigner to be called sebastokratōr was Stefan Nemanjić of Serbia, who was given the title in 1191. A Bulgarian aristocrat by the name Kaloyan also used the title.
• Kaisar – "Caesar": originally, as in the late Roman Empire, it was used for a subordinate co-emperor or the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When Alexios I created sebastokratōr, kaisar became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I created despotēs. The feminine form was kaisarissa. It remained however an office of great importance, and was awarded to a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and was only rarely awarded to foreigners. Justinian II named Tervel, khan of the Bulgars, kaisar in 705; the title then developed into the Slavic term tsar or czar. Title was also awarded to George II of Georgia. Andronikos II Palaiologos also named Roger de Flor, leader of the Catalan Grand Company, kaisar in 1304.
• Nobelissimos – from the Latin Nobilissimus : originally a title given to close relatives of the Emperor, subordinate only to the kaisar. During the Komnenian period, the title was awarded to officials and foreign dignitaries, diluting its status. The title Prōtonobelissimos was created in its stead, until it too started to decline, only to be replaced by a further augmented form: Prōtonobelissimohypertatos. By the late Palaiologan era, the former had vanished, while the latter was a provincial official.
• Kouropalatēs – from the Latin cura palatii, "charge of the palace": First attested in the time of Justinian I, it was the official in charge of the running of the imperial palace. However, the great authority and wealth deriving from this position, as well as the close proximity to the Emperor, meant that it accumulated great prestige. It was awarded to important members of the imperial family, but from the 11th century onwards, it declined, and was usually awarded to the vassal rulers of Armenia and Georgia.
• Sebastos – "August One" this title is the literal Greek translation of the Latin term Augustus or Augoustos, was sometimes used by the emperors. As a separate title it appeared in the latter half of the 11th century, and was extensively awarded by Alexios I Komnenos to his brothers and relations. The female version of the title was sebastē. The special title Protosebastos was created for Hadrianos, Alexios' second brother, and awarded also to the Doge of Venice and the Sultan of Iconium. During the 12th century, it remained in use for the Emperor's and the sebastokratōr's children, and senior foreign dignitaries. However, the parallel processes of proliferation and devaluation of titles during the 12th century resulted in the creation of a bewildering array of often ridiculously large variations, by using the prefixes pan, hyper, prōto : examples include Pansebastos, Panhypersebastos, or hyperprōtopansebastohypertatos. Few of them actually survived past the 12th century, and all of them rapidly declined in importance.

  Court titles from the 8th to 11th centuries

Titles for the "Bearded Ones"

• Proedros – "president": Originally reserved for eunuchs, it was opened up in the mid-11th century to "Bearded Ones" as well, especially military officials.
• Magistros – in the early Byzantine state, the magister officiorum was one of the most senior officials, but as his duties were gradually relegated to other officials, by the 8th century, only the title was left. It remained a high honour, and only rarely awarded until the 10th century. By the early 10th century, there were 12, the first in precedence among them bearing the title of prōtomagistros. Thereafter the number of its holders was inflated, and the office vanished sometime in the 12th century.
• Vestarches – "head of the vestai", adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it was awarded to "bearded" senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople from ca. 1050 on. It disappeared in the early 12th century.
• Vestes – senior honorific title, first attested under John I Tzimiskes. Awarded to both eunuchs and non-eunuchs, it survived until the early 12th century. The term is etymologically connected to the vestiarion, the imperial wardrobe, but despite earlier attempts to connect the vestai and the related title of vestarchēs, the head of the class of the vestai, with the officials of the vestiarion, no such relation appears to have existed.
• Anthypatos – "proconsul": Originally the highest rank for provincial governors, it survived the creation of the Theme system, until, in the 9th century, it too became a purely honorific title. The variant prōtanthypatos was created in the 11th century to counter its decline in importance, but both disappeared by the end of the 12th century.
• Patrikios – "patrician": Established as the highest title of nobility by Constantine the Great, it remained one of the highest dignities until its disappearance in the Komnenian period, awarded to high-ranking officials, including eunuchs, and foreign rulers. The spouses of patricians bore the title patrikia.
• Prōtospatharios – "first spatharios". As its name signifies, it originally was the title borne by the leader of the spatharioi For instance, in the 6th century Narses bore this title. It later became one of the most common high court titles, awarded to senior officials such as the logothetai, the commanders of the imperial tagmata or the strategoi in charge of a theme. The title of prōtospatharios also signified admittance to the Senate. The office survived until the Palaiologan period, but had declined to the 35th place of the hierarchy.
• Dishypatos – "twice consul". A very rare dignity, which originated possibly in the 8th century.
• Spatharokandidatos – a portmanteau of the titles spatharios and kandidatos, both of which were types of palace guards in the 4th–6th centuries. The earliest references to the title occur in early 8th century and the title is clearly attested only from the early 9th century on. Its distinctive badge was a golden chain worn around the chest.
• Spatharios – "spatha-bearer": As their name signifies, the spatharioi were initially a special corps of imperial guards They performed specific duties inside the imperial palace. The title survived until the early 12th century.
• Hypatos – "consul": As in the Roman Republic and Empire, the title was initially given each year to two distinguished citizens, until Justinian I halted the practice due to the extraordinary expenditure it involved. The title continued to be occasionally assumed by emperors on accession until the end of the 7th century. Honorary consuls however continued to be named, as attested by seals bearing the titles hypatos or apo hypatōn. The title was often conferred to the rulers of south Italian city-states.
• Stratōr – "groom"
• Kandidatos – from the Latin candidatus, so named because of their white tunics. They were originally a select group of guards, drawn from the Scholae Palatinae. The title disappeared in the Komnenian period.
• Basilikos mandatōr – "imperial messenger"
• Vestētōr, were officers of the imperial wardrobe.
• Silentiarios, originally a group of courtiers responsible for the maintenance of order in the palace.
• Stratēlatēs, a translation of the Latin magister militum, and apoeparchōn, a translation of the Latin ex praefectis. These two titles are listed as equal by Philotheos. Both were still high dignities in the 6th century, but were devalued afterwards.

  Titles for the eunuchs

• Proedros – "president": This was an entirely new rank introduced in the 960s by Nikephoros II Phokas and first awarded to Basil Lekapenos, the eunuch parakoimōmenos. The holder of this dignity was also the president of the Senate, and the term proedros was often used to denote precedence, e.g. proedros of the notarioi for the prōtonotarios. The title was widely awarded in the 11th century, when it was opened up to non-eunuchs, prompting the creation of the prōtoproedros to distinguish the most senior amongst its holders. It disappeared in the latter 12th century.
• Vestarches – adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it was awarded to "bearded" senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople from ca. 1050 on. It disappeared in the early 12th century.
• Patrikios – The same as for the "Bearded Ones".
• Vestes – the same as for the "Bearded Ones".
• Praipositos – from the Latin praepositus, "placed before".
• Prōtospatharios – The same as for the "Bearded Ones"
• Primikērios – from the Latin primicerius, "first in the list".
• Ostiarios – from the Latin ostiarius, "doorkeeper, usher"
• Spatharokoubikoularios – "sword-chamberlain": a ceremonial sword-carrier assigned to the personal guard of the emperor. It later became a simple court rank.
• Koubikoularios – from the Latin cubicularius, "chamberlain".
• Nipsistiarios, the nipsistiarios was tasked with holding a gold, gem-encrusted water basin and assisting the emperor in performing the ritual ablutions before he exited the imperial palace or performed ceremonies.

From 14th to 15th century

1. Despot
2. Sebastokrator
3. Caesar
4. Megas domestikos
5. Megas doux
6. Protostrator, deputy of meges domestikos
7. Megas stratopedarches
8. Megas primmikerios
9. Megas konostablos
10. Megas droungarios
11. Megas hetairearches
12. Epi tou stratou
13. Domestic of the Scholae
14. Megas droungarios, deputy of megas doux
15. Protospatharios
16. Megas arkhon, debuty of megas primmikerios
17. Megas tzaousios
18. Skouterios
19. Amyriales, debuty of megas droungarios
20. Megas akolouthos
21. Arkhon tou Allagion, deputy of megas arkhon
22. Protallagator
23. Domestic of the Walls
24. Vestiarios, debuty of amyriales
25. Hetaireiarches, debuty of megas hetairearches
26. Stratopedarches of the Mourtatoi
27. Stratopedarches of the Tzakones
28. Stratopedarches of one-horse cavalry men
29. Stratopedarches of the crossbowmen
30. Protokomes

    Palace offices

• Parakoimomenos – literally, "one who sleeps nearby", was the High Chamberlain who sleeps in the Emperor's bedchamber. Usually a eunuch, during the 9th–10th centuries, the holders of this office often functioned as de facto chief ministers of the Empire.
• Protovestiarios – usually a minor relative of the emperor, who took care of the emperor's personal wardrobe, especially on military campaigns. He was also sometimes responsible for other members of the imperial household, and the emperor's personal finances. The older term, from before the time of Justinian I, was curopalata. This was derived from kourator, an earlier official responsible for financial matters. The vestiarios was a subordinate official. The protovestiaria and vestiaria performed the same functions for the empress.
• Papias – great concierge of the imperial palaces, responsible for the opening and closing of the palace gates each day.
• Pinkernes – originally the emperor's cupbearer, later a senior honorific title.
• Kanikleios – the keeper of the imperial inkstand, one of the senior officials of the imperial chancery. In the Komnenian and Palaiologan period, some of its holders were de facto chief ministers of the Empire.
• Epi tes trapezes – Greek: ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς τραπέζης, "the one in charge of the table," official responsible for attending to the imperial table during banquets.

  Military offices

Army

• Exarchos – The exarchs were governors of remote parts of the empire such as Italy or Africa. They enjoyed a greater degree of independence than other provincial governors, combining both civil and military authority, practically acting as viceroys.
• Domestikos – the domestikoi were originally imperial guards, who later functioned as senior staff officers in the Late Roman army. In the Byzantine period, they were among the highest military offices, and included:
• *Megas domestikos – the overall commander of the army.
• *Domestikos tōn scholōn – the commander of the Scholai, originally a number of guards units, later a Tagma. This was a very prestigious title, and by the late 9th century, its holder functioned as commander in chief of the army. In ca. 959, the post was divided, with one domestic for the East and one for the West.
• *Domestikos tōn thematōn – the commander and organizer of the military themes; there was one for the European themes and one for Asian themes.
• Katepanō – The governor of a greater area combining two or more themes, such as the Catepan of Italy, a title developed in the 9th century.
• Stratēgos – a military and later also civil commander of a theme, who often also had the title of doux. The term is basically equivalent to "general" or "admiral", as it was used in both branches of service.
• Tourmarchēs – the commander of a tourma, a military unit of battalion size.
• Prōtostratōr – initially the Emperor's stable master, under the Komnenian and Palaiologan emperors the term was used for the second-ranking commander of the army.
• Stratopedarchēs – This official was in charge of making sure the army was stocked with food and arms.
• Hoplitarchēs or archēgētēs – commander of all infantry in a large army, the title first appears in the mid-10th century, when the infantry is reorganized and gains in importance.
• Prōtokentarchos and kentarchos – commanders of a smaller division of the army in the field. The name was derived from the Latin centurion.
• Merarchēs – commander of a division of the army. Usually, each army was divided into two to three such commands.
• Taxiarchēs or chiliarchēs – commander of an infantry regiment in the army.
• Kavallarios – A title borrowed from the Latin caballarius, it originally meant a cavalry soldier. During the Palaiologan period, it became a minor court title.

  Navy

• Megas doux – The Megaduke or Grand Duke, was the basic equivalent of the modern Lord High Admiral. The office was created by Alexios I Komnenos, when he amalgamated the remnants of the imperial and thematic fleets into a single imperial fleet. By the end of the Palaiologos dynasty the megaduke was head of the government and bureaucracy, not just the navy.
• Amirales – The Greek version of "Admiral", introduced via Sicilian practice. An office founded in the late Palaiologan era for Western mercenary leaders and rarely held, the amirales was the deputy of the megas doux.
• Megas droungarios – Initially the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy, after the creation of the megas doux his lieutenant, in charge of the naval officers.
• Droungarios – The title existed both in the army and the navy. In the navy of the 8th–11th centuries, a droungarios headed a fleet, either the central imperial fleet or one of the thematic fleets; in the army he headed a Droungos, roughly a battalion-sized grouping.
• Komēs or droungarokomēs – The commander of a squadron of dromons.
• Kentarchos or nauarchos – the captain of a ship.

  Other military titles

• Ethnarchēs – the ethnarch, commander of foreign troops.
• Konostaulos – Greek form of Latin Comes stabuli 'count of the stable' and various European feudal titles such as English "constable" – the chief of the Frankish mercenaries.
• Hetaireiarchēs – the chief of the barbarian mercenaries, the Hetaireia, successor to the Foederati. Initially subdivided into Greater, Middle and Little Hetaireia.
• Akolouthos – "Acolyte," the chief of the Varangian Guard from the Komnenian era onwards.
• Manglavitai – A category of palace guards, armed with sword and cudgel. Under the command of a Prōtomanglavitēs.
• Topotērētēs – meaning "place-holder", "lieutenant". Found at various levels of the hierarchy, as deputies to commanders of the imperial tagmata, deputy to a drungarios.

  Administrative offices

• Praetorian prefect – The Praetorian prefect was originally an old Roman office used for the commander of the army in the Eastern and Western portions of the Empire. It was abolished in the 7th century owing to wide reaching civil and military reforms. The title evolved into the domestikos. After Diocletian's reforms, the functions of the Prefect embraced a wide sphere; they were administrative, financial, judicial, and even legislative. The provincial governors were appointed at his recommendation, and with him rested their dismissal, subject to the Emperor's approval. He received regular reports of the administration from the governors of the provinces. He had treasuries of his own, and the payment and the food supplies of the army devolved upon him. He was also a supreme judge of appeal; in cases which were brought before his court from a lower tribunal there was no further appeal to the Emperor. He could issue, on his own authority, praetorian edicts, but they concerned only matters of detail.
• Basileopatōr – "Father of the Emperor": an exceptional title, granted only twice in Byzantine history. Although a basileopatōr was not the emperor's actual father, and the title did not necessarily denote any familial relationship at all, both awardees were father-in-law to the emperor: Stylianos Zaoutzes under Leo VI the Wise and Romanos I Lekapenos briefly as regent for Constantine VII, before he raised himself to co-emperor. It ranked first among the "decreed" offices, and entailed wide-ranging administrative duties.
• Protasekretis – "First Secretary" an earlier title for the head of the, responsible for keeping official government records and head of the class of senior secretaries known as asekretis. Other subordinates included the chartoularios, the kastrensios, the mystikos, and the eidikos.
• Protonotarios – mainly during the middle Byzantium, also "First Secretary" but chiefly employed as chief financial and executive officer of either each thema/province, directly under its governor-general, or as imperial secretary in various government ministries in the capital. Charged with the provisioning of the thematic troops, ahead of a campaign, the Protonotarios -at times- resembled a Commissar of the USSR answering only to the emperor. During the late Byzantine era, the title is only encountered at the Palaiologan court, as the emperor's private secretary. In post-imperial times the title was linked to a higher administrative position with the Orthodox Church authorities.
• Logothetēs – "one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates", literally "one who sets the word;" a secretary in the extensive bureaucracy, who did various jobs depending on the exact position. Logothetes were some of the most important bureaucrats. They included:
• *Megas logothetēs – the head of the logothetes, personally responsible for the legal system and treasury, somewhat like a chancellor in western Europe.
• *Logothetēs tou dromou – the head of diplomacy and the postal service.
• *Logothetēs tōn oikeiakōn
• *Logothetēs tou genikou – responsible for taxation. Also acts as a secretary in later cases.
• *Logothetēs tou stratiotikou – a civilian, in charge of distributing pay to the army.
• Chartoularios tou vestiariou Literally "keeper of documents for the Public Wardrobe" ; responsible for minting gold and silver coins and equipping the fleet.

• Eparch of Constantinople – The urban prefect of Constantinople.
• Quaestor – Originally an accountant or auditor, the office eventually became a judicial one for Constantinople.
• Tribounos – translation of Latin tribune; responsible for maintenance of roads, monuments, and buildings in Constantinople
• Magister – an old Roman term, master of offices and master of the army; by the time of Leo III, these had become honorary titles and were eventually discarded.
• Sakellarios – "Treasurer; purse-bearer." Under Heraclius, an honorary supervisor of the other palace administrators, logothetes, etc. Later, the chief financial comptroller of the Empire.
• Praetor – Latin for "Man who goes before; first man." One of the oldest of Roman titles, predating the Roman Republic, the title's use morphed considerably through the years. By the time of Theodosius I it meant the leading municipal magistrate but from late 10th century until 1204, a civil governor of a theme.
• Kephale – "head", the governor of a small province, usually a town and its surrounding territory, in the Palaiologan period
• Horeiarios – in charge of distributing food from the state granaries.

Court life